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THE 



KAFIR LANGUAGE: 



COMPRISING 

A SKETCH OF ITS HISTORY; 

WHICH INCLUDES 
A GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOUTH AFRICAN DIALECTS, 

ETHNOGRAPHICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL: 



REMARKS UPON ITS NATURE : 



AND 



A GRAMMAR. 



BY THE REV. JOHN W. APPLEYARD, 

WESLEYAN MISSIONARY IN BRITISH EAFERARIA. 



KING WILLIAM'S TOWN: 
PRINTED FOR THE WESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY: 

SOLD BY GODLONTON AND WHITE, GRAHAM'S TOWN, 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE *, AND BY JOHN MASON, 

66, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 



1850. 



■A ^ 



'/ 



\ 



Language is a subject of interesting 


scientific 


inquiry, 


as well aa 


of 


practical utility. 












EEV. 


JOHN BEECHAM, D. 


D. 






ufc_ PREFACE. 



The following work was undertaken, partly to 
afford assistance in the acquisition of the Kafir lan- 
guage, and partly to encourage and stimulate 
inquiry in reference to South African dialects in 
general. In the writer's opinion, these are entitled 
to a more minute and extended consideration, than 
they appear to have hitherto received from the phil- 
ological world. Though they are spoken by tribes 
confessedly illiterate and uncivilized, yet they are 
neither irregular in their formation, nor barbarous 
in their construction. On the contrary, they are 
highly systematic, and truly philosophical. Though 
destitute of literary treasures, whether for instruc- 
tion or amusement, they are by no means wanting 
in such peculiarities as are amply sufficient to gratify 
and repay the most careful attention. Their inves- 
tigation would not only awaken curiosity, but would 
also throw additional light on the important subject 
of comparative or universal grammar. It may be 
fairly presumed, moreover, that some assistance 



vi PREFACE. 

might tlius be obtained, towards tracing the origin 
and subsequent distributions of tlie people them- 
selves. 

It is matter of regret, that the languages of the 
aboriginal tribes have received so little notice from 
the Colonial government. In some other parts of 
the British empire, philological studies frequently 
enjoy the patronage of those in authority, and con- 
siderable inducement is accordingly presented to 
those who endeavour to mould an aboriginal dialect 
into grammatical or lexicographical forms. In a 
few instances, indeed, the civil officers of government 
are required to be in some degree conversant, with 
one or more of the languages spoken by the people 
with whom they are officially connected. Such a 
requisition as this, on the part of the Cape govern- 
ment, could not fail to be attended with advantage 
to the public service ; more particularly to that 
part of it, which refers to their political relations 
with the native tribes beyond the Eastern and 
Northern frontiers, several of which have recently 
been brought within the pale of British Sovereignty. 

In the case of Missionaries, it will be universally 
allowed that a knowledge of the native languages 
is highly necessary, in order to a successful and 
satisfactory prosecution of the important work in 
which they are engaged. At the commencement of 
their career, interpreters may perhaps be employed 
with some advantage ; but as such a mode of assis- 
tance is necessarily circuitous and imperfect, the 
sooner it can be dispensed with the better. A prac- 



PREFACE. vii 

tical acquaintance, therefore, with the language of 
the people among whom they dwell and labour, 
should be considered by all Missionaries, whether 
clerical or laical, not only as a desirable attainment, 
but as an indispensable one. 

There can be little doubt, also, but what some 
degree of acquaintance with the Kafir language, 
would be of essential service to many of the Eastern- 
frontier colonists, both as a direct medium of com- 
munication in the ordinary transactions of the farm, 
and as a ready means of imparting instruction. It 
may be worth consideration, accordingly, whether 
its study would not be advantageously included in 
the education of those who are ultimately intended 
for agricultural pursuits, in which they will chiefly 
require the services of Kafirs or Fingoes, and to 
whose moral and intellectual welfare, it will be 
their duty as far as possible to attend. 

These prefatory observations may be closed with 
a few words of explanation and counsel. 

Of the two parts which precede the Grammar, 
and which are designed to be introductory to it, the 
first contains a concise review of South African 
dialects in general, and of the Kafir language in 
particular, the whole being illustrated by tables of 
comparison, and other modes of exemplification, 
according to the means of information at command. 
In the second part, the leading peculiarity of the 
Alliteral class of South African dialects is treated 
of, together with a few other points which appeared 
necessary to elucidate the general character of the 



\ui PEEFACE. 

Kaiir language. The Grammar which follows, is 
chiefly the result of an exact and careful analysis of 
the most approved translations and writings, tested 
in all needful cases by a reference to oral testimony. 
In its general execution, no pains have been spared 
to render it as complete as circumstances would per- 
mit. To those who are already acquainted with the 
language, it will probably present little that is new 
in the facts or usages thereof. A hope may be in- 
dulged, however, that their fuller development, and 
more systematic arrangement, may prove acceptable 
and useful. 

To those who may be about commencing to learn 
the Kafir language, a caution may perhaps be needful 
in their entering on the study of a language, which 
is used by a people living in a widely different state of 
society to that in which they themselves have moved, 
and which belongs to a class of languages totally dis- 
tinct, in many of its features, from any to which 
they have been previously accustomed ; lest, on the 
one hand, they endeavour to bend it to preconceived 
rules, in which case they will fail to understand it ; 
or, on the other hand, they hastily condemn it as bar- 
barous and unphilosophical, when, in all probability 
they will be discouraged, and disinclined for further 
progress. The Kafir language must be allowed to 
stand upon its own merits, and be studied according 
to its own analogy. If this be done, it will be found 
superior to many in ingenuity of form, and inferior 
to few in the expression of thought. 



CONTENTS. 



("The numbers on the right hand refer to sec- "> 
(_ tions ; those on the left hand to sub-sections. ) 



HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF THE KAFIR LANGUAGE. 

On the use of the term Kafir, 1 

Comparison of the Kafir with other languages, 2 

Classification of South African dialects, 3 

The Click class, 4 — 11 

Hottentot family, 5 

1. Dialects of the Hottentots proper 

i. JBastaards or Griquas speak the Cape Dutch 
ii. Gonaquas or Gonas speak the Kafir 

2. Namaqua dialect 

Spoken also by the Sill Damaras 

3. Korana dialect 
Dialectic variations, 6 

1. Verbal specimens 

2. Extracts in Namaqua and Korana, 

I 



CONTENTS. 

Hottentot literature, 7 

Bushman family, 8 
Bushman dialects, 9 
Bushman literature, 10 
Grammatical structure of the Click languages, including a 
Ho ttentot grammar in the Karana dialect, 11 

The Alliteeal class, 12 — 23 
Congo family, 13 

1. Congoese dialects 
The Kamimlu 

2. Bunda language 
The Moloua 

3. Benguela dialects 

Damara family, 14< 

Verbal and phrasal specimens 

Sechuana family, 15 

1. Eastern dialects 

2. "Western dialects 
Dialectic variations, 16 

Verbal specimens 

Lord's prayer in Sitlapi and Sisuto 
Dialects of the Balala, 17 
Sechuana literature, 18 

1. In the Sitlapi dialect 

2. In the Sirolong dialect 

3. In the Sisuto dialect 

4. Sechuana Grammars 

5. Basuto Hunting song 

Kafir family, 19 

1. The Kafir branch 

2. Zulu branch 

i. Natal natives 

ii. People of UmzeleJcazi 

3. Eingoe branch 
i. Amqfengu 

ii. Amabaca 



CONTENTS. xi 

iii. Matabele 

iv. Amaswazi 

v. Other tribes 
Dialectic variations, 20 

Verbal specimens 

Lord's prayer in Amaxosa and Amazulu 
Kafir literature, 21 

1. In the Amaxosa dialect 

2. In the Amaswazi dialect 

3. In the Amazulu dialect 

4. Kafir Hymn 

Family Variations of the Alliteral class, 22 
Principal differences between the Kafir and Sechuana 
families 

1. In respect of clicks 

2. In respect of other elementary sounds 

3. In respect of prefixes 

4. In respect of roots 
i. Voivel changes 

ii. Consonantal changes 

iii. Changes through abbreviation and omission 

5. Changes in terminations and inflections 

6. Changes in the nominal prefixes 

7. Changes in the verbal and other prefixes 

8. Some nouns with same roots but different prefixes 
Unclassified dialects of the Alliteral 

class, 23 

1. Dialects of the Eastern coast 
Delagoa, Sooahelee, Sfc. 

2. Inland and interior dialects 
Makoa, Monjou, KoniunTcue, fyc. 

3. Dialects of the Western coast 
JPonyo, Bonny, Sfc. 

ON THE NATUEE OP THE KAFIE LANGUAGE. 

Euphonic Concord, 2-1 

Orthographical construction of words, 25 



adi CONTENTS. 

Grammatical variations of form, 26 

Precision of expression, 27 

The copia yerborum, 28 

[Figurative language, 29 

Personification, 80 

Character of the enunciation, 31 

GBAMMAK OF THE KAEIK LANGUAGE. 

Division into three parts, 32 

FIRST PART. 

THE COMPONENT PARTS OF WORDS. 

Or Letters, 33—56 
Alphabet, 33 

Division of letters into four kinds, 34 
Vowels, 35 

Combination of, 36 
Coalition of, 37 
Contraction of, 38 
Elision of, 39—40 
Mutation of, 41 
Consonants, 42 

Classification of, 42 
Combination of, 43 
Omission of, 44 
Mutation of, 45 
Clicks, 46 
Combination of clicks and consonants, 47 
Mutation of clicks, 48 
Gutturals, 49 
Combination of gutturals and consonants, 50 
Radical letters, 51 
Compatible letters, 52 
Epenthetic letters, 53 
Euphonic letters, 54 

1. Their derivation 

2. Their correspondency to the nominal prefixes 



CONTENTS. xiii 

3. Their different uses 
Substitutes for Euphonic letters, 55 
Euphonic letters of the^rs^ and second persons, 56 
Op Syllables, 57- — 63 

Construction and Division of syllables, 57 

[Rules applicable to foreign words, 58 
Contraction of syllables, 59 

In Compound words, 60 
Elision of syllables, 61 
Prothetic and Paragogic syllables, 62 —63 

Or Sound, 64—72 

Accentuation, 65 — 69 

Principal tone, 65 

Eoretone, 66 

Oratorical accent, 67 

Peculiar intonation in some words, 68 

Slight aspiration in others, 69 
Quantity, 70 
Versification, 71 
Punctuation, 72 

SECOND PART. 
FOKMS AND PROPERTIES OF WORDS. 

Division of words mtofive principal kinds, 73 
Nouns, 74—133 

Prefixes of nouns, 74, and 86 
Classification of nouns, 75 
Derivation of nouns, 76 — 89 

Erom the roots of verbs, 76 — 77 
Prom the roots of adjectives, 78 
Erom the roots of other nouns, 79 
"From, particles, 80 
Compound nouns, 81 
Proper names, 82 
Reduplicated nouns, 83 
Nouns from vowel roots, 84 



xiy CONTENTS. 

Nouns from roots beginning with nasal m or n, 85 
Diminutive nouns, 87 — 88 
Nouns of comparison, 89 
Gender of nouns, 90 — 92 
Number of nouns, 93—97 
Plural formations, 93 

Irregular ditto, 94 — 95 
Defectives, 96 
Redundants, 97 
Corresponding singular and plural euphonic letters, 98 
Forms of nouns, 99—133 

Principal forms, 100 — 118 
Simple form, 101 
Possessive forms, 102 — 105 
First, 103 
Second, 104 
Dative forms, 106—111 
Inflected, 107—110 
Prefixual, 111 
Locative form, 112 
Vocative form, 113 
Causal form, 114 
Instrumental form, 115 
Conjunctive form, 116 
First Comparative form, 117 
Second Comparative form, 118 
Compound forms, 119 — 132 

Four compound inflected dative forms, 120 — 123 
Four compound prefixual dative forms, 124 — 127 
Four compound locative forms, 128 — 131 
One compound vocative form, 132 
Talular view of the several forms of nouns, 133 

Adjectives, 134 — 158 

Classification of adjectives, 135 — 137 

Table of adjectives with their prefixes and epenthetic 
letters, 138 
Indefinite adjectives, 139 — 146 



CONTENTS. xr 

Derivation of adjectives, 147 

Diminutive adjectives, 148 
Comparison of adjectives, 149 
Numerals, 150 

Numeral adjectives, 151 

Numeral nouns, 152 

Mode of Counting, 153 

Multiplicatives, 154 — 155 
^Elision of adjectival prefixes, 156 — 158 
After verbs, 156 
After nouns, 157 — 158 

Pronouns, 159 — 184 
demonstrative pronouns, 160 — 168 
Classification of, 161 
Derivation of, 162—164 
Forms of, 165—167 

Principal forms, 165 
Compound forms, 166 
Tabular view, 167 
When treated as prefixes, 168 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 169 — 175 

Classification of, 170 

Derivation of, 171 

Forms of, 172—173 
Tabular view, 173 
Possessive pronouns, 174 
Demonstrative personal pronouns, 175 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 176 — 184 

Rules for determining their particular form, 176 — 177 
Derivation of relative pronouns, 178 
Influence upon the verb — 
As to ti±3 tenses, 179 
In referen le to the affix yo, 180 
Forms of relative pronouns — 

Tabular view and remarks, 181 — 183 
Coalition of relative pronouns, 184 



XVI 



CONTENTS. 



Verbs, 185—290 

General classification of verbs, 185 — 188 
Properties of verbs, 189 

poems, 190—206 

Primitive form, 193 — 196 
Simple derivative forms , 197 

1. Relative form 

2. Causative form 

3. Subjective form 

4. Eeciprocal form 

5. Reflective form 

Compound derivative forms, 198 — 199 
Eemarks with examples for illustration, 200—203 
Stem forms, 204—206 
Primitive, 205 
Derivative, 206 

voices, 207—212 

Formation of passive voice, 208 — 210 
Passive stem forms — 
Reduplicated, 211 
Eeciprocal, 212 

moods, 213—216 

Classification of, 213 
Imperative mood, 214 
Infinitive mood, 215 

participles, 217 — 225 

Their nature and classification, 217 
Their different forms, 218 
Their formation, 219—225 
Principal parts of the verb, 226 

tenses, 227—259 

Their classification and formation in general, 227 — 229 
Different forms of the tenses, 230 — 232 
Tenses of the Indicative mood, 233 — 240 
Tenses of the Potential mood, 241 — 248 



CONTENTS. irii 

Participial forms of ditto, 249—252 
Tenses of the Subjunctive mood, 253 — 255 
Augmented forms of the tenses, 256 — 257 
Compound forms of the tenses, 258 — 259 
dumber, 260 
pee sox, 261 

Impersonal form of the verb, 262 
conjugation, 263 — 274 

Verbal prefixes, 264—265 

1. Present affirmative prefixes 

2. Aorist affirmative prefixes 

3. Negative forms 

Arrangement of the verbal prefixes, 265 
Auxiliary verbs, 266 — 271 

Contracted forms of, 268—271 
Verbal medials, 272 — 274 
Regular verbs, 275 — 276 

Paradigm of a regular verb, 275 

Tabular view of a verb in the third person, singular, 
first species, affirmative form, 276 
Irregular verbs, 277 — 289 
Monosyllabic verbs, 278 — 279 
The substantive verb, 280 

1. Form of nouns and pronouns after substantive verb 
2 — 3. Sometimes used without the verbal root 

4. How it expresses to have 

i. Contraction of following noun to express whose 
ii. Inflection of following pronoun to express have 
for 
The verb ti in combination with certain particles, 281 

1. Their derivation 

2. Sometimes used interjectionally 
Vowel verbs, 282—288 

Some which were vowel verbs originally, 289 
Idiomatic verbs, 290 

c 



xviii CONTENTS, 

Particles, 291-359 
yerbials, — asi, ha, ho, sa, Sfc. 292 — 301 
prefixes, 302—319 

Possessive particles, 303 

Tabular view of the Alliteral particles, 304 
Other prefixes, — ha, hu, hwa, nga, na, Sfc. 305 — 319 
affixes, — ana, anyana, azana, hazi, Sfc. 320 — 327 
expletives, — he, nje, ho, Sfc. 328 

interrogative s, — na, nina, nganina, njanina, Sfc. 329 — 339 
adverbs, 340 — 355 

Demonstrative adverbs, 350 — 353 
Numeral adverbs, 354 — 355 
prepositions, 356 

Likewise used as adverts, 357 
conjunctions, 358 
interjections, 359 

THIRD PART. 
CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, 

Of propositions in general, 361 — 363 
Negative propositions, 364 — 365 
Negative in the verb, 364 

1. On the prefix na 

2. Concerning nahanye and napahade 
The verb musa, 365 

In terrogative propositions, 3 QQ 
Optative propositions, 367 — 369 

The verb nga, to wish, 367—368 

Substantive verb, 369 
Hypothetical propositions, 370 — 372 

Substantive verb, 370 

The verb ti, 371 

The verb nga, to seem, 372 
Interjectional propositions, 373 — 377 



CONTENTS. xix 

Use of tlie adverb 7iai, 373 
Use of the verbial asi, 374 
Infinitive mood of substantive verb, 375 
Use of njanina, and other modes, 376 
Oaths or affirmations, 377 
Copulative propositions, 378 — 386 

Union of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and particles, 378 
Union of verbs, 379—384 

Parts of the proposition, 387 — 393 
The subject, 388 
The predicate, 389—391 

Temporary predicate, 392 — 393 

General principles of construction, 394 — 397 
Euphonic concord, 394 

On gender and number, 395 
Apposition, 396 

No harmony like that of case, 397 

Concordance of the Principal parts of the proposition, 
398—411 

Principal parts of the proposition, 398 
Nominative and verb, 399 — 405 
Accusative and verb, 406 — 410 
Verb expresses a complete proposition, 411 

Position of the Principal parts of the proposition, 412 
—415 * 

Nominative or subject and verb, 412 — 413 
Accusative and verb, 414 

Concordance and Position of the Subordinate parts of 
the proposition, 416 — 443 

Concordance of nouns, 416 — 417 
Concordance of adjectives, 418 — 423 
Position of adjectives, 424 
Concordance of pronouns, 425 — 430 
Position of pronouns, 431 — 433 

Omission of relative pronouns, 434 — 438 



xi CONTENTS. 

Concordance of participles, 439 
Concordance of particles, 440 — 441 
Concordance of tlie nominative absolute, 442 — 443 

Nouns and pronouns in general, 442 

Relative pronoun in particular, 443 

Kegimen oe woeds, 444 — 499 
O f N o u n s , 444—449 
OfAdjectives, 450—451 
OfPronouns, 452—453 
Of Verbs, 454—484 

On the different kinds of verbs with regard to regimen, 

455—457 
On foe forms of nouns and pronouns in dependency upon 
the verb, 458—483 
Simple form, 458—460 
Possessive forms, 461 
Dative forms, 462—469 
Locative form, 470 
Causal form, 471—473 
Instrumental form, 474 — 478 
Conjunctive form, 379 — 481 
Comparative forms, 482 
" For" in dependency on the verb, 484 
Of A d v e r b s, 485—490 
OfPrepositions, 491—493 
Of Conjunctions, 494—498 
Of Interjections, 499 
Paetictjlae usages oe woeds, 500 — 584 
f N o u n s , 500—505 

Adjectival usages of nouns, 500 — 501 
Adverbial usages of nouns, 502 — 50p 
OfAdjectives, 506—508 
Ninzi with into, 506 
Indefinite nye with nouns of time, 507 
Adverbial usages of adjectives, 508 



CONTENTS. xxi 

OfPro nouns, 509—521 

Demonstrative pro no tins, 509 — 510 
Used definitely like " the, " 509 

1. Used for personal pronouns 

2. Used for relative pronouns 

Used with into before conjunction " that, " 510 
Personal pronouns, 511 — 515 

Sometimes include a reciprocal sense, 511 
Used redundantly, 512 
Used definitively or demonstratively, 513 
Used with into to express "what, " 514 
Demonstrative personal pronouns, 515 
Relative pronouns, 516 — 521 

Prefixed to possessive forms in reference to & following 

correlative , 516 
Prefixed to possessive forms in reference to a previous 
correlative, 517 

1. Correlative sometimes understood 

2. Also referred to indefinitely 

i. This construction used adveroially 
ii. A sort of reciprocal pronoun supplied 
Relative pronoun in these constructions expresses 
that or those, 518 

1. In the singular may express " one " 

2. Adds the force of " oivn" to possessive pronouns 
Prefixed to plural possessive forms of personal pro- 
nouns, 519 

Prefixed to plural locative forms of personal pronouns, 

520 
Used for conjunction " that, " 521 
O f V e r b s , 522—574 

« On the Infinitive mood, 522—526 
On the Participles, 527—528 
On the Tenses, 529—530 
On the impersonal form of the verb, 531 
On the substantive verb, 532 — 537 
On the verb ti, 538—513 



\ 



xxii CONTENTS. 

Idiomatic usages of verbs, 544 — 569 

First class of idiomatic verbs, 544 — 551 

( Andula, 545 — Da, 546 — Fudula, 547 — Fumana, 
1 548— Kova, 549 —Mcma, 550—551 

Second class of idiomatic verbs, 552 — 566 

SAleJcela, 553 — Buya, 554 — Hla, 555 — 556 — 
Hlala, 557 — Hlalela, 558 — JCa, 559 — Kolisa, 
Sfc, 560 —Finda, 561 —Sala, 562 —Suka, 563 
—Wa, 564 — Ya, 565 — Z«, 566 

Adjectival usages of verbs, 570 

Adverbial usages of verbs, 571 — 572 

Comparison in connexion with verbs, 573—574 

Of Particles, 575—585 
On the Adverbs, 577—584 



APPENDIX. 



PAGE 

A. — Parsing lesson 369 

B._ Note on §19 377 

C— Addenda to §23 378 

General index 385 



CORRIGENDA. 



Page 9, line 11 of note 5 : The word Amalau is wrongly written. It should 
he Amalawo. 

Page 41, line 3 : The word Amafengu, though in accordance with derivation 
and occasional usage, is nevertheless more generally heard in the form of Amam- 
fengu. See § 85, 2, i. 

Page 90, line 38 of note 57 : Umopu, ummopu ; ought not to have been in- 
serted. Umopu is the proper form of the word, opu being the root, and not 
mopu. 

Page 100, line 14 : Transfer — iliwa, precipice ; from wa } to fall : — to § 
77, 1, Spec. 2 : and supply in the place thereof, — ilivo, narrative ; from va t 
to hear : 

Page 103, line 32 : The form of the root in the word umoya is given, incor- 
rectly. The clause should be thus written : — um- Oya, Spec. 1, the Spirit ; 
from umoya, Spec. 6, wind, or spirit in its neuter application : 



ERRATA, 

Page line 

6 22 read relationship for ralationship 

10 13 of note 7, read sometimes for somtimes 

51 17 read d . . n for d . . u 

61 8 read antelope for antilope 

69 17 read an old man for and old man 

82 1 read skumayela for shumaycla 

87 9 read participles for particles 

190 33 read Bunga/or Banga (In a few copies only) 

310 33 read herbivorous for herbiferous 

345 25 read Abavuni for Abavumi 

355 15 — 16 read pres-ent for pres-sent 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 



OF THE 



KAFIR LANGUAGE 



1. In remarking on the history of the Kafir language, it 
may be right to observe at the outset, that the term Kafir 
is a word of Arabic extraction, with the generally received 
signification of infidel. It appears to have been originally 
applied by the Arabians, as well as by the Portuguese, their 
immediate successors in African conquest, to all the black 
population of South Africa indiscriminately. Since their 
time, however, the use of the term has become more and 
more limited in its range, according as geographical and 
ethnographical knowledge has increased. In the present 
day, its largest application is usually confined to the tribes 
dwelling beyond the Eastern frontier of the Cape colony. 
As might be expected, the name of Kafir is neither used nor 
understood by the natives ; unless it be, that some who live 
on the immediate border, have an indefinite idea of its 
being one of reproach. Amongst themselves, they are all 
distinguished by their own respective epithets, according to 
their several nations, tribes, and families. In most parts of 
the Colony, as well as in many recent works of travel, the 
term Kafir is frequently restricted to one of the above 
mentioned tribes, namely, the Amaxosa ; the remaining 
tribes, so f..r as they are known, being distinguished by 
their ow T n national names, or rather by corruptions of them : 



2 



POSITION OF THE 



Thus, the Abatembu are called Tambookie Kafirs, or sim- 
ply Tambookies ; the Amampondo, Pondos ; the Amazulu, 
Zulus; and the Amafengu, Fingoes. 1 In relation to language, 
the word Kafir may be used as a general term, whereby to 
designate the different dialects spoken by these and their 
sister tribes, in a corresponding manner to the native word 
Sechuana, as applied to the various dialects which are spo- 
ken by the Bechuanas. 2 

2. The Kafir language, although at present spoken by a 
race of people only just emerging from a state of complete 
barbarism, bears strong internal evidence of having been 
used, at one time, by those who must have constituted a 
much more cultivated order of society. Time has probably 
effected a deterioration in some of its parts, considering in 
whose possession we find it ; yet even now it does not 
seem to be the legitimate property of an uncivilized people. 
On comparing it with other languages, whilst it is distin- 
guished by all of their more general properties and usages, 
it is found, at the same time, to possess one peculiar and 
striking characteristic, which draws a line of demarcation 
between it, or rather the class to which it belongs, and 
every other family of known dialects. This characteristic 
is the principle denominated the Euphonic concord, which 
plainly marks out a new and distinctive class. To this class 
belong nearly all the dialects which are spoken south of the 
Equator, and north of the Cape colony. In the present 
state of our information, it is impossible to determine which 



1 In the northern parts of the Co- 
lony, the Bechuana tribes are gene- 
rally called Kafirs, whilst the proper 
Kafir tribes are termed, tbe Kaal or 
JBhot Kafirs, that is, the Bare or 
Naked Kafirs. 

2 There are said to be two Arabic 
words from which the term Kafir 
might base been derived. Tbe one 
is Cafara, to lie; and the other, 
Kafr, a waste. Hence probably tbe 
different modes in which this epitbet 
has been written, some having vised 
CniFre, or CafFer ; and others Kafir, 
Kaffir, or Kiifftir. It would serve no 
useful purpose to argue as to which 



of these several derivatives has tbe 
strongest claims to be considered the 
best representative of the primitive, 
but it is doubtless desirable that 
uniformity should prevail in the use 
of one, rather than variety in the use 
of many. That which is employed 
throughout this work, seems to have 
the best sanction, and is the nearest 
derivative of the second of the above 
Arabic words, which, whether tbe 
true original or not, is the less 
offensive term of tbe two, and perhaps 
more expressive of the uncivilized and 
heathenish condition of the people. 



KAFIR LANGUAGE. 3 

is the parent of these several dialects, or which is the coun- 
try where it might be found. That they all descend from 
one common original, is sufficiently evident from the 
same roots being in general use ; though their identity 
as in the case of all other cognate dialects, is often 
concealed through consonantal and other changes. The 
discovery of one common source is rendered the more 
difficult from the circumstance, that the languages which are 
spoken north of the Equator, as far, at least, as observation 
and research have hitherto extended, appear to be altogether 
of a different construction, both verbally and grammatically. 
Vocabularies of several of these languages have been publish- 
ed, in one form or another, but none of them present any 
tangible proof of immediate relationship to the Kafir, or any 
similar dialect. This will be seen from a comparison of the two 
following tabular views of a few words, in different African 
dialects, compiled from two articles in the " Classical Muse- 
um" on Ethnology and Philology, in which the writer 
principally treats upon African languages. Amongst these 
words will be found some of most of the leading dialects of both 
Western and Eastern Africa, and whilst it is sufficiently plain, 
that many of the dialects to which they severally belong, can 
be identified as members of the same family, yet it does not 
appear so clear, that such a close affinity subsists between 
the whole, as would seem to be contended for in the above 
mentioned articles. When compared with the Kafir, perhaps 
no greater resemblance is discernible, than what might 
be inferred to exist between that language and the English, 
from a cursory glance at a few words, in which there happens 
to be a similarity of form or sound. For example : — 

English, Kafir. 

beat beta 

hollow u-holo 

tell tyela 



POSITION OF THE 



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6 



TOSITION OF THE 



The grammatical structure of these languages appears to 
be as much at variance with the Kafir, as their vocabularies. 
The Galla dialects, for example, are known to be essential- 
ly different from the Sooahelee, which, as will be shown 
hereafter, belongs to the same class as the Kafir. An exam- 
ination of the Mandingo and Ashanti grammars, will lead to 
the same conclusion in respect to those languages. 3 

The Malagasy language, again, which, from the proximity 
of Madagascar to the African continent, might have been 
supposed to bear some affinity to the Kafir, belongs to the 
Polynesian class of languages, approaching most nearly to 
the Malay family, both in grammatical structure and verbal 
affinity. The Rev. J. J. Freeman, formerly a Missionary 
in Madagascar, observes, that " the Malagasy seems to bear 
no relation to the Mozambique, nor to the Kafir languages 
of Africa. There are many natives of Mozambique in the 
island ; but so perfectly dissimilar is their language from that 
of the Malagasy, that they can hold no mutual conversation 
with the natives of Madagascar, till they have acquired the 
language of the latter."* 

It may be concluded, then, that since no satisfactory proof 
of ralationship, either in verbal affinity or grammatical struc- 
ture, can be discovered between the Kafir and any of the 
known African dialects, not included in the same class, a 



3 Dr. Pritchard, it is believed, 
has expressed an opinion to the effect, 
that some affinity can be traced be- 
tween the Coptic and the Kafir. Per- 
haps the use of prefixes, with which 
the Coptic is said to abound, was 
what led to the formation of that o- 
pinion. it may be right, therefore, 
to remark, that the peculiarity of the 
Kafir languages consists not in their 
possessing non -radical prefixes, nor 
simply in the circumstance that these 
prefixes are alliteral, but in the fact 
that alliteral prefixes constitute the 
basis of all grammatical construction 
and government. Many other lan- 
guages are found with prefixes, more 
or less in use; and one — the Wo- 
loff — is said to have an "AlHterati- 
onal Concord;" but before a family 



identity can be established between 
any of these and the Kafir, it must 
be shown that their prefixes have a 
correspondency of form and use, and 
that the alliteration which they gram- 
matically evolve is necessary, not 
arbitrary. Do any of these languages, 
for instance, vary the prefix of their 
adjectives ten or twelve times, ac- 
cording to the prefix of the governing 
noun ? Have any of them a hundred 
different forms for the pronoun " its, " 
the variation depending upon the pre- 
fixes of the noun referred to, and the 
noun governing? 

4 Appendix to Ellis's u History of 
Madagascar," which contains an 
outline of Malagasy grammar by the 
Rev. J. J. Freeman. 



KAFIR LANGUAGE. 7 

family affinity with all, or with any of them, cannot be 
established. It may seem unnecessary to remark, that no 
particular affinity is to be found betweei^ the Kafir and the 
extensive class of languages usually denominated Indo- 
Ger manic. Some resemblance, however, may be traced 
between the Kafir and the Semitic families. The different 
forms of the verb in general, and the peculiar usages of 
some verbs in particular, together with many of the con- 
structions of the relative and other pronouns, sufficiently 
indicate this. Possibly, therefore, the Kafir may be a 
Semitic tongue, with the Euphonic concord engrafted on it. 
But thouofh this opinion should be proved tenable, the Kafir 
and similar languages have still to be dealt with, according to 
their present constitution; and from what has already been 
said, their position must be regarded as unique, their several 
dialects standing isolated from all others, so far as their 
peculiar characteristic is concerned. The particular origin, 
accordingly, of these languages, has yet to be discovered. 
Whether the parent dialect is to be found amongst the tribes 
who have reached the South, or whether it is to be found 
amongst tribes who may still remain in the North, can only- 
form a subject of conjecture. If, however, there be a parent 
still in existence, it might probably be found amongst the 
tribes which occupy the interior regions to the south or south- 
west of Abyssinia, where, it is not impossible to conceive, some 
of the early progenitors of the Kafir, and other South African 
tribes, remained behind, whilst the general emigration 
proceeded in its downward course. It may be reasonably 
expected, in fact, that a traveller, tolerably conversant with 
the language and customs of the Kafirs, would be ab^e to 
throw a considerable degree of light upon their origin 
and migratory movements, by a journey through the nume- 
rous tribes which lie between the Nile and the Red sea, and 
skirt the southern parts of Abyssinia. On many accounts, 
there are good grounds for supposing that they are of 
Ishmaelitish descent, and consequently, that they are of the 
same origin as many of the tribes of Arabia. The twelve 
sons of Ishmael were the princes or heads of as many 



8 CLASSIFICATION OF 

different families, and whose descendants occupied a tract 
of country, extending from Havilah on the Euphrates, 
which seems to have been a little below its junction 
with the Tigris, to the wilderness of Shur, which 
forms a part of the Isthmus of Suez. In the course 
of time, the several tribes of JshmaeFs descendants would so 
increase, as to render an extension of country desirable, if 
not absolutely necessary. It may be naturally supposed, 
accordingly, that the more Eastern tribes gradually passed 
down into Arabia, whilst the extreme Western ones descend- 
ed the western shore of the Red Sea, whence they gradually 
spread themselves out to the west and south. Further and 
successive emigrations were doubtless rendered necessary for 
the same reason, as well as through the encroachments of 
other tribes, till at length they reached the several countries 
where they are now found, and where their migratory 
progress is finally stayed, by the advance, from the opposite 
direction, of another and more powerful emigration, with 
which they appear destined to be amalgamated. 



CLASSIFICATION 



OF 



SOUTH AFRICAN DIALECTS, 



3. The preceding remarks have been introductory to a 
general classification of South African dialects. In this way 
we shall be the better enabled to develope the history of the 
Kafir language, as it may be viewed, not only in itself, but 
also in its relative position with all others which are found 
in the same division of the globe, whether belonging to its 
own or another class. As far, then, as it has yet been ascertained, 
all the languages of South Africa may be included under two 



SOUTH AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 9 

principal divisions, which may be denominated from their 
distinctive features, — the Click class, — and the Alliteral 

class. 



CLICK CLASS. 

4. The Click class of South African languages includes 
those which are spoken by the various Hottentot tribes, 
whose ancestors were probably the first inhabitants of this 
part of the world. 5 Its different dialects abound with those 
peculiar sounds which have been usually called clicks, as 
well as with nasals and gutturals of extreme harshness. As 
a natural consequence, they are uncouth and unharmonious, 
rendering any attempt at their systemization a matter of al- 
most insuperable difficulty. This class may be divided into 
two families, — the Hottentot, — and the Bushman. 

HOTTENTOT FAMILY. 

5. The Hottentot family comprises the dialects spoken by 
the Hottentots proper, the Namaquas, and the Koranas. 
These several tribes give sufficient evidence of one common 
origin, being distinguished by the same physical appearance, 
as well as by the same general language and manners. In 
all these respects, they are widely different from any of the 
Kafir, Bechuana, or other tribes, who speak languages 
belonging to the Alliteral class. 

1. The Hottentots proper probably formed, at one time, 
the principal tribe of the great Hottentot nation. When the 
Cape was first colonized by the Dutch, these were the 



5 ; The meaning of the term Rotten- I By the Kafir?, the Hottentots are 
tot is involved in some obscurity. It called Amaqeija and Amalau. Tli 



seems to be of Dutch extraction ( Hot- 
en-tot), and was probably given in 
reference to tbeir language, which 
rnight have appeared to tbose wbo 
first heard it, as consisting of little 
better tban an assemblage of such un- 
meaning monosyllables as hoi and tot. 



latter is properly a nickname. It sig- 
nifies, those who prefer eating tbeir 
cattle, to keeping them ; and may be 
regarded, therefore, as a Kafir stigma 
on the proverbial improvidence of 
the Hottentot race. 



10 



CLICK CLASS. 



aborigines of the country, inhabiting the whole of what is 
now the Colony, and extending eastwards as far as the Kei 
river. G At the present time they form an inconsiderable 
number, being mostly lost or amalgamated with other races. 
Their language, also, is nearly extinct, being superseded, 
in the case of those who have sprung from an intercourse 
between Europeans and Hottentots, by the Dutch ; and in 
that of those who have sprung from an intercourse between 
Kafirs and Hottentots, by the Kafir. 

The former people are usually denominated Hottentots 
or Bastaards, the latter appellation being deemed the more 
honourable by themselves. They form a large portion of 
the population of the Colony, and are likewise found in 
considerable numbers in different parts of the country be- 
yond the Gariep or Orange river, where they live in 
separate clans under their own chiefs, and are generally 
called Griquas J The Dutch language is universally used 
by all classes of these people, though there are many to be 
found amongst them, who still retain the Hottentot in their 
ordinary conversation with each other. This, however, is 
cliiefiy confined to those whose physical appearance betrays 
a closer propinquity to the Hottentot, than to the 
European. 8 



6* Most of the rivers west of the 
Kei, and some even beyond that ri- 
ver, still retain their Hottentot 
names, except that the Kafirs have 
conformed them to the laws of their 
own language. 

7 The term Griqua was substituted 
for that of Bastaard, at the recommen- 
dation of Mr. Campbell, the well 
known Missionary and traveller, on 
their settlement at Klaar Water, 
since called Griqua Town. It seems 
to have been borrowed from the name 
of a tribe of Hottentots, who former- 
ly lived in the neighbourhood of Little 
Namaqualand, and from whom some 
of these people were very likely des- 
cended. There is one clan of Bas- 
taards, also, who somtimes go by the 
name of Newlanders, from the circum- 
stance of their living in what is called 
the Newlaads. It may be added, that 



the Bergenaars (i. e. Mountaineers), 
who made themselves so terrible to 
some of the Bechuana tribes, a few 
years since, were nearly all destroyed 
by the Kafir chief Umzelekazi. They 
were of the same class of people as 
the Griquas, and with whom the few 
that still remain, have since settled. 
8 The Dutch language as generally 
spoken by the bastard Hottentots and 
Emancipated Slaves in the Colony, 
and by the Bastaards and Griquas 
beyond, as well as by the Dutch 
themselves in the country districts, is 
very different from the Dutch as used 
in Holland. The difference partly 
consists in corrupt forms of words, in 
the adoption of foreign words, and 
misappropriation of their own ; and 
partly, in barbarous modes of expres- 
sion, by which they bid defiance to 
all rules of grammar, or in other 



HOTTENTOT FAMILY. 



li 



The latter people are termed Gonaquas or Gonas, and 
are principally found amongst the border tribes of Kafirland. 
They have adopted the Kafir habits and customs as well as 
language, so that any distinction which may be now percep- 
tible, will in all probability soon cease. 

2. The Namaqua dialect is spoken by that part of the 
Hottentot nation which settled down in Namaqualand, on 
the Western coast. Their country, through which they are 
only thinly scattered, lies between the twenty-third and 
thirtieth degree of south latitude, and is divided into Little 
and Great Namaqualand, the Orange river forming the 
line of separation. This dialect, likewise, bids fair to become 
extinct at no very distant period, the Dutch language having 
already been extensively introduced. 

The Namaqua language is also used by the Hill Damaras, 
who are said to belong to the Negro family, and who live 
to the north of Namaqualand. Till additional light is thrown 
upon this subject, it must be presumed that the Hill Da- 
maras have borrowed their present language from the Nama- 
quas, which their near neighbourhood and frequent inter- 
course, during perhaps several centuries, would enable them 
to do, for it certainly seems improbable that two such 
different races should possess originally the same language. 

o. The Korana dialect is used by the Koranas, another 
branch of the Hottentot nation. It would appear that these 
people, on the final breaking up of the great Hottentot 



words, set all reputable usage at 
nought. Professor Changuion, of 
Cape Town, has lately published a 
grammar, under the title of " De 
Nederduitsche Taal in Zuid Afrika 
Heisteld," at the close of which will 

Cape- Dutch. 
Ik bet mit horn nix uit te waaij 'nie : 
Die ouwe seur is te dauig kuaai: 

] k is jammer voor jou : 

Miju kop is zeer : 

Maskie is ik ziek, ik wil nie t 'huis 

blij 'nie: 

Jij schuld mij bajan geld : 

Eks als moea: al, ik kannie nicer 



loopciiie : . . [ loopeu. 



be found, " Proeve van Kaapsch 
Taaleigen," where the peculiarities 
of Cape- Dutch usage are exposed. 
A specimen or two from this work 
will be sufficient to illustrate the 
extent of difference : — 

Dutch. 
Ik heb geen boodschap met hem. 
Mijnheer is al te kwaad. 
Ik neb medelijden met u. 
Ik heb hoofdpijn. 

Al ben ik ook ziek, ik wil niet te 
huis biijven. 

(iij /iji mij vee] geld schuldig. 

Ik ben afiaioe, ik kan niet meer 



12 CLICK CLASS. 

family, in their migratory course, remained in the interior, 
whilst the Hottentots proper proceeded southwards, and the 
Namaquas westwards. They dwell in different parts be- 
tween the Vaal and Caledon rivers, and along the banks of 
the Orange river, towards Namaqualand. 

6. The preceding dialects vary only slightly from each 
other, natives of the different tribes being- able to converse 
with one another without much difficulty. Their origin is 
at present involved in obscurity, though it seems not 
unlikely, that further researches may do something towards 
discovering it. When the Rev. R. Moffat was in England, 
a few years since, he met with a Syrian who had recently 
arrived from Egypt, and in reference to whom, Mr. INI. 
has the following note : " On my giving him a specimen and 
a description of the Hottentot language, he remarked that 
he had seen slaves in the market at Cairo, brought a great 
distance from the interior, who spoke a similar language, 
and were not near so dark coloured as slaves in general. 
This corroborates the statement of ancient authors, whose 
description of a people inhabiting the interior regions of 
Northern Africa, answers to that of the Hottentot and 
Bushman." 9 It may be conceived as possible, therefore, 
that the people here alluded to, form a portion of the 
Hottentot race, whose progenitors remained behind in the 
interior country, to the south or south-west of Egypt, 
whilst the general emigration continued its onward course. 
Should this prove not incorrect, it might be reasonably 
conjectured, that Egypt is the country from which the 
Hottentot tribes originally came. This supposition, indeed, 
is strengthened by the resemblance which appears to subsist 
between the Copts and Hottentots in general appearance, 
and which, from the description given of the former people 
by historians and travellers, is as close as could be expected, 
when their different circumstances for so many ages are 
taken into consideration. It is generally agreed that the 
Hottentot tribes form one of the most ancient of the African 



9 " Missionary Labours and Scenes in | Southern Africa," by Rev. It. Moffat. 



HOTTENTOT FAMILY. 



13 



races, and hence, it may not be going beyond the bounds 
of probability to suppose, that the Hottentots, like the Copts, 
may have sprung from the ancient Egyptians, and that their 
ancestors, at the commencement of their migratory career, 
were amongst the not very remote descendants of Mizraim, 
the second son of Ham. 

1. The following verbal specimens in each dialect, will 
serve to illustrate the nature and extent both of their variation 
and agreement. 



ENGLISH. 


HOTTENTOT. 


NAM A QUA. 


KORAN A. 


father 


itn : abob 


iip 


iim : abob 


mother 


'kus 


iis 


iis: 'kus 


son 


oaap 


oaap 


oaam 


man 


koeep 


kooin 


koeeb 


woman 


tarakoees 


tarrass 


trakoees : koees 


head 


dannap 


taunass 


bi'kam 


hand 


'oemma 


'oemma 


'oemma 


eye 


moep 


moes 


moemp 


tooth 


'koep 


'koes 




fire 


eip 


eys 


eip 


water 


'kamma 


'kamma 


'kamma 


sun 


sorrees 


tsoriis 


sorrees 


moon 


'kaap 


'kaap 


'chaam 


great 


kei 


kay 


kei 


little 


'karri 


'kalli 




bone 


'koop 


'kooe 




yes 


a 


a 


a 


no 


ha a 


heei 


ha a 


I, or me. 


tire : tita 


tita 


tire : tita 


God 


Tshoei'koap 10 


Tsoei'kwap 


Tshu'koab 



2. The succeeding extracts from the Namaqua Gospels, 
and the Koranct catechism, may prove interesting to those 



10 This is the word from which the | and skill amongst the Hottentots or 

r_e__ i u.vi_ j__:„_j .1,.;.. ... xr„ — „ „_.„_ • i i 



Kafirs have probably derived th 
Tijco, a term which they have univer- 
sally applied, like the Hottentots, to 
designate the Divine Being, since the 
introduction of Christianity. Its de- 
rivation is curious. It consists of 
two words, which together mean "the 
wounded knee." It is said to have 
been originally applied to a doctor 
or sorcerer of considerable notoriety 



Xamaquas, some generations back, 

in consequence of his having received 
some injury in his knee. Haviuo- 
been held in high repute for extra- 
ordinary powers during life, he con- 
tinued to be invoked, even after 
death, as one who could .-till relieve 
and protect ; and hence, in process 
of time, he became the nearest in 
idea to their first conceptions of God. 



14 CLICK CLASS. 

who are curious in philology, as further exemplifying the 
peculiarities of these dialects. Their orthography, as well 
as that of the above list of words, resembles the Dutch. The 
apostrophes and similar marks indicate the click or guttural 
sounds. 

THE LORD'S PRAYER IN NAMAQUA. 

Matt.vi: 9 — 13. Ziitaa iip, nanoepna hap, zaa onsta annoe 9 

annoehii. Zaa koeoep ha, zaa kaup nii i^, nanoepna 10 

koemmJ, 'natszii oonna hoepy. Neezeep ziitaa beereeba II 

maataa. Ore ziitaa zuritin oenniibataa, ziitaa zuritiaun 12 

nataara oenniiba koemmi. Taa 'aygga oaapua kay kwiitaa, 13 
gawee 'ayggapgoe ooreetaa. Zaap ke koeoeba, ore kayp 
ore kay kayp tazeekatip na ammap. 

THE APOSTLES' CREED IN KORANA. 

'Koemreha Tshu'koab iim, 'keisa 'koerroe *aub 'hoemmidi 'hoeb dikakje 
dihaamb. 

'Koemreha Jesip Christip, Tshu'koab di'koei oaam, sida 'goeb 'koh 
'oaaekjeha Heilige Geest ga, oaaekjeha oageis Maria sa, thoe 'kamee ibkjeke 
ha Pontius Pilatus i 'eebga ibjekeha ibjeke 'kaneha, ibkjeke 'ooha, ibkjeke 
'naneha, ibkjeke hellega 'oa koeaha, ibkje 'nona 'eib i'eebga -keiha 'oobgoe 
'hummiga 'oa ibkjekeha 'aw ah a, ibkje Tshu'koab di "am 'eoam 'na 'noa, 
'naba goe ibkje ta 'kawaha, "koeeha di 'oosa dina 'koorahka. 

'Koemreha Heilige Geest, 'annoem Christen di kerk, 'annoenn di 'koeib 
zonde di oeroebaab, 'oob di kei'm i "ammo koeem. 

7. Little has been effected in the Hottentot dialects 
towards the formation of a literature, beyond the works just 
quoted. Dr. Van der Kemp published a part of a catechism 
in the dialect of the Hottentots proper, at Bethelsdorp, 
about the beginning of the present century, but it does not 
appear to have ever been much in use, and few copies, if, 
any, are now extant. The Four Gospels were translated 
into the Namaqua dialect, several years since, by the Rev. 
Mr. Schmelen, who was assisted by his wife, herself a pious 
native. More recently, the Gospel of St. Luke has been 
published by one of the Rhenish Missionaries, and it is an- 
nounced, that the whole of the New Testament is preparing 
for translation and publication. In this edition an improved 
orthography is adopted, which will probably render it more 
acceptable than that by Mr. Schmelen. The Korana cate- 



BUSHMAN FAMILY. 15 

chism, containing a brief exposition of the Apostles' Creed, 
was published by the Rev. Mr. Wuras, one of the Mission- 
aries of the Berlin Society, and who is perhaps the first 
European that lias succeeded in mastering any of the 
Hottentot tongv.es. Mr. Wuras has also prepared a gram- 
mar of the Korana dialect, in which he has succeeded in 
notifying all the various sounds by the usual European 
characters. But, as yet, this is only in manuscript. 

BUSHMAN FAMILY. 

8. 77:5 Bushman family includes the several dialects 
which are spoken by the wandering tribes called BushmenM 
These people, though now but thinly scattered over the vast 
continent of South Africa, once formed a numerous race. 
Traces of them may be found in almost every direction. 
Caves, for instance, which they once inhabited, are found 
both in the Colony and in Kafirland, where their peculiar 
hieroglyphical representations of animals which they were 
accustomed to hunt, may still be clearly deciphered. Vari- 
ous opinions have been entertained with regard to the origin 
of these singular beings. That of the Rev. R. Moffat, as 
stated in his interesting work on South Africa, appears the 
most probable. For various reasons founded on some 
analogous cases amongst the Bechuana tribes, he concludes 
that they were originally poor Hottentots, who separated at 
different periods from the main branches of the family, as it 
pursued its downward course of migration, and that these 
were latterly increased by others, who may have been 
plundered, or driven out of the Colony. This opinion 
satisfactorily accounts for their divided and secluded state, 
whilst, at the same time, it reconciles with this, their 
general identity of appearance and language, with the 
Hottentot race. 



11 The meaning of this epithet is 
sufficiently ohvious. It was given 
them from their general manner of 
life, as it never appeared that they 
had any fixed place of abode, but u- 
sually wandered about in the bush, 



or among the hills of the open coun- 
try. 

By the Bechuanas they are called 
Baroa (pronounced Barwa), and by 
the Kafirs, Abatwa : which are mere 
variations of the same word. 



16 CLICK CLASS. 

9. The dialects of the Bushmen are very numerous, 
though all furnish sufficient evidence of a common origin 
with those of the Hottentot family. In addition to the 
clicks and gutturals of the latter, they have the still more 
disagreeable sound of croaking in the throat. Some of the 
Bushman dialects are not understood by the Hottentot tribes, 
whilst others are. But with regard to this, a great deal 
depends upon the. localities of the respective tribes. 
Thus, a Korana may be able to converse with a Bushman 
living in his immediate neighbourhood, though he might 
find it difficult, or even impossible, to converse with one 
further in the interior. There are many instances, however, 
in which Koranas and Bushmen do not understand each 
other, though dwelling in the same vicinity ; and what is 
more surprising, Bushmen themselves are sometimes 
ignorant of each others' speech, though only separated by 
a range of hills, or a river. It is very probable, therefore, 
that many of these dialects are used by not more than fifty 
or a hundred families, a circumstance which of itself would 
be sufficient to prove detrimental to their general improve- 
ment, but more especially so, when taken in connexion with 
their restless disposition and roving habits. 

10. In the way of literature nothing has been accomplished 
in the Bushman language. In fact, it would seem to be quite 
incapable of having any. Humanly speaking, it appears 
necessary to teach the Bushmen, and the same remark applies 
with almost equal force to every Hottentot tribe, a new 
language, in order to their Christianization and civilization. 

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CLICK LANGUAGES. 

11. Though the languages of the Click class of South 
African dialects, are inferior to all others in the mode of 
their enunciation, employing, as they doubtless do, the very 
lowest grade of articulate sounds, yet in their grammatical 
construction, they possess the same general properties, and 
observe the same general usages, as all other languages. 
In one or two instances, indeed, they contain such refined 



HOTTENTOT GRAMMAR. 17 

distinctions as are not to be met with in the polished 
languages of Europe. Their present barbarous state, as 
regards vocal expression, can hardly be supposed to be their 
original one. It seems more likely to have arisen by a 
gradual process of innovation, during the long period which 
the several Hottentot migrations are conjectured to have 
occupied, and in the course of which, the people appear to 
have descended from one stage of intellectual degradation to 
another, till they arrived at that extreme point of barbarity 
in which they were first found by Europeans. An early 
date may be assigned for the commencement of this innova- 
tory process. When they arrived at their present condition, 
it is impossible to say ; but, judging from external evidence, 
no material change can have passed over them for some 
centuries. The conclusion to be deduced from these remarks, 
is, that if it were possible to divest these languages of their 
uncouth and jargonish sounds, which totally disqualify them 
for becoming successful media of instructive communication, 
and restore those for which they have been successively 
adopted, they would perhaps prove to be in closer alliance 
with some other African tongues, than is usually imagined. 
The following grammatical outline of one of the Click dialects, 
compiled from a Dutch manuscript copy of the Korana 
grammar before mentioned, most obligingly furnished to the 
writer by Mr. Wuras, will perhaps be considered as an 
interesting pendant to the preceding observations. 

HOTTENTOT GRAMMAR IN THE KORANA DIALECT. 

I. The Korana language has twenty-nine elementary 
sounds, which are thus represented and classified : — 

1. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and pronounced as in 
Kafir. 

aa, au, ee, and oo, are sounded as in Dutch, 
ei, is sounded as ie in fie, or i in pine. 
Other vowel combinations, as ii, are pronounced in separate syllables. 

2. The consonants are b, c, d, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p> 
r, s, t, w, and z. 

c 



18 CLICK CLASS. 

C is pronounced like tsh ; j, like y ; and z, like ts. 
The remaining consonants are pronounced as in English, the g being: 
always hard, as in gone. 

3. The clicks are q, y, v, and f. 

Q corresponds to the Kafir q ; and y to the Kafir x. V aud / are 
different modifications of the Kafir c. 

4. The gutturals are x, kh, and eh. 

Ch resembles the Dutch g \ kh is a deeper sound ; and x still deeper, 
and very harsh. 

5. Ng, is a strong nasal, 

II. There are three numbers, — singular, dual, and plural. 

1. The dual is formed from the singular, by rejecting 
its final consonant or consonants, and affixing Jca or Icara. 
With the latter affix, which seems properly to belong to 
feminine nouns, the final consonant of the singular is some- 
times retained, and the initial k of kara rejected instead. 

2. The plural is formed from the singular, by rejecting 
the final consonant or consonants, and affixing hu or kua for 
masculine nouns, and tee for feminine nouns. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

Mas. Kueeb, man : Kueeka, two men : Kueeku, men. 

Fern. Kuees, woman ; Kueesara, two women : Kueetee, women. 

Mas. Mump, eye : Muka, two eyes : Muku, eyes. 

III. There are two genders in the singular, — masculine, 
and feminine ; and three in the plural, — masculine, feminine, 
and common. 

1. Nouns which have s for their final letter in the singular 
number, are feminine : those which have other terminations 
are masculine, 

Mas. Fern . 

Kueeb, man : Kuees, woman. 

Fkoop, boy : Fkoos, girl. 

Qchaam, moon : Sorrees, sun. 

2. The common gender of the plural number is formed 
from the singular of masculine nouns, by rejecting the final 
consonant or consonants, and affixing na. 

Mas. Fern. Com. 

Kueeku, men : Kueetee, women : Kueena, menschen. 



HOTTENTOT GRAMMAR. 19 

Hence, though the Hottentots have words for children, 
sheep, horses, $c., they have none to express a child, a 
sheep, a horse, $•<?., but are always obliged to distinguish 
the sex in the singular number, as in the following examples : 

Singular. Plural. 

Fkoop, boy Fkoos, girl: Fkona, children, 

Kup, ram. Kus, ewe : Kuna, sheep. 

Haab, stallion .Haas, mare: 12 Hana, horses. 

IV. Nouns have no distinction of case. To express 
possession, the nouns are simply placed in apposition, as, 
man book, man son, fyc. ; or, when emphasis is required, a 
similar construction takes place to that which was formerly 
used in English, as, man his book, man his son, Qc. There 
is a difference to be noticed, however, in masculine plural 
nouns, according to the relation which they sustain to the 
verb. Two forms of the affix are given for their formation 
from the singular noun, but ku seems to be used where the 
noun is the subject of the verb, and kua when it is its object. 
Hence, in their case, there is probably the distinction of 
nominative and accusative. 

V. Adjectives are not affected by change of form, in 
reference to gender, number, and case. The following 
examples will illustrate the modes of comparison : 

Comparative, 

Sorreeskje qchaam vkangmba is keiha ; 
Sun moon more she great- is. 

Superlative, 

Hee kueeb qeimb vchuhang ; 
This man he rich-is. 

VI. Personal pronouns have two forms in the singular 
number, and three in the plural, according to the genders. 

Singular, 

Mas. Fern. 

Tire, [ : Tita, I. 

Saaz, thou : Saas, thou. 

Qeimb, he: Qeis, she. 

12 Haas, and lens, are the words from I iltashe, horse, and igusha, sheep, 
which the Kalirs have derived their 



20 CLICK CLASS. 







Plural. 




Mas. 


Fern. 


Com. 




Sikje 

Sakau . . . 


.... Sisee. . 


Sida, or Sada : 


We. 


Sasau 


Sadu : 


You. 


Qeiku . . . 


Qeitee 


Qeina, or Qann : 


They. 



VII. Possessive pronouns are derived, in the singular 
number, by eliding the final consonant or syllable of the 
personal pronouns. In the plural number, they both 
preserve the same form. 

Singular. 

Mas. Fern. 

Ti haab, my horse : Ti haab, my horse. 

Sa haab. thy horse : Sa haab, thy horse. 

Qt'im haab, his horse : Qeis haab, his horse. 

Plural. 

Mas. Fern. Com. 

Sikje hana Sisee hana Sida harm: Our horses. 

Sakau hana Sasau hana Sadu hana : Your horses. 

Qeiku hana Qeitee hana Qeina hana : Their horses. 

There is a nice distinction to be observed in the use of the 
pronouns sida and sada, we, or our. The former may be 
termed an exclusive pronoun, and the latter an inclusive one. 
Thus, if one should say, — Sida hana idana xoa : We 
seek our horses ; — the meaning would be, our horses, to the 
exclusion o£ those which might belong to the person addressed. 
But if sada were the pronominal form employed, the horses 
of the person addressed would be included in the meaning. 13 

VIII. The demonstrative pronouus are Jwe, this ; qua, 
that ; and hcetii, such. They are used with all genders and 
numbers : 



13 A similar usage to the above 
is found in one class of the Polyne- 
sian dialects. The late Mr. Williams, 
when remarking upon these in his 
" Missionary Enterprises, " thus 
writes : " Their pronouns are 



inclusive and exclusive pronouns: 
for example, in English we say, " It 
is time for us to go;" and the expres- 
sion may or may not include the per- 
son addressed. Now, in the Poly- 
nesian dialects there are two pronouns 



beautifully complete, having several ( which mark this difference, matou and 

remarkable and valuable distinctions , tatou. If the person spoken to is one 

unknown to us. An instance is i of the party going, tatou would be 

found iu what we may term the ' used; if not, matou." 



HOTTENTOT GRAMMAR. 21 

Hee kuees This woman. 

Hee kueena Deze menschen. 

Qua kueeb That man. 

Heetii kueeb Such a man.* 

IX. There are also Reciprocal and Interrogative pronouns, 
but no Relative pronoun. 

Qeisin xei Self. 

Sin Mij, u, zich, &c. 

Ham Who, which, what ? 

Examples. 
Qeisin xeirehang ; It is he himself. 

Saaskje gagasiuzhang; You deceive yourself. 
Ham kueeb ? What man ? 

1. There are two interrogative particles, e and ha, with 
much the same force as the Kafir na. The former appears 
to be used with pronouns, and the latter with nouns. 

Ham e qeimba ? Who is he ? 

Ham kueoz ka ? What man art thou ? 

2. The place of the relative pronoun is supplied by the 
participle. Thus, instead of saying, The man whom I love, 
one must say, The man I loving, or, The man I loving him. 

X. The root of the verb is the second person, singular, 
of the imperative mood. The different tenses are formed by 
the help of the substantive verb, which consists of certain 
particles, varying according to the tense, and in the case of 
the present tense, varying according to its use. The formation 
of this substantive verb seems to be wholly arbitrary, it 
being impossible to detect any thing like a regular root, 
from which its several stems have branched out. There 
may be as much connexion, however, between them, as 
there is between sum, eram, and fui, or between am, was, 
and been. The several persons are distinguished by rem- 
nants of the personal pronouns, which are usually inserted 
between the word or root employed, and the above men- 
tioned particles. The following formulas will show how the 
substantive verb is used with a singular masculine noun. 



Present Tense. 

Kueeri, I am a man. 
Kueezi, Thou art a man. 
Kueebi, He is a man. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Kueesirkoha, I was a man. 
Kuecsizkoha, Thou wast a man. 
Kueesibkoha, He was a man. 



22 



CLICK CLASS. 



Perfect Tense, Future Tense. 

Kueesirkjeha, I hare been a man. Rueesr.rta, I shall be a man. 

Kueesizkjehp,, Thou hp.st been a man. Kueesizta, Thou shah be a man. 
Kueesibkjeha, Ke has been a man. Kueesibta, He shall be a man. 

Infinitive. — Kueesi To be men. 

Participle. — Kueeba, or Kueesa. . Being a man. 

1. It is only one letter or syllable which constitutes the 
difference in the persons. This letter or syllable is the 
remnant of the personal pronoun; the r or re being that 
of tire ; s of saaz ; and b of qeimb. Hence all that is re- 
quired to form the plural, is to substitute the plural prono- 
minal remnant for the singular one : as, 



Masculine. 
Kueekjei, We are men. 
Kueekaui, Ye are men. 
Kueekui, They are men. 



Common. 
Kueedai, Wij zijn menschen. 
Kueedui, Gij zijt menschen. 
Kueenai, Zij zijn menschen. 



2. The use of the syllable si in the Imperfect, Perfect, 
and Future tenses, would seem to indicate that the Infinitive 
has something to do w T ith their formation. 

XL When the substantive verb is used with an adjective 
or adverb, the particle ha is used for i in the present tense ; 
and a slight variation is also observable in the form of the 
pronominal remnant, in one or two of the persons of the 
other tenses. 

Present Tense. 

Plur. 
Vkasidaha, 

Vkasiduha, 
Vkasinha, 



Sing. 
Vkasircha, 
Vkasizha, 

Vkasibha, 



Mas. 

I am poor. 
Thou art poor. 
He is poor. 

Imperfect. — Sing. Mas. 

Vkasirekoha, I was poor. 
Vkasizkoha, Thou wast poor. 
Vkasibkoha, He was poor. 



Com. 

We are poor. 
You are poor. 
They are poor. 

Perfect. — Sing. Mas. 

Vkasirekjeha, I have been poor. 
Vkasizkjeha, Thou hast been poor. 
Vkasibkjeha, He has been poor. 



Vkasirta I shall be poor. 

Vkasirka a I should be poor. 

Fneikarkje ka a vkasib.. I might be poor. 

XII. The negative is expressed in connexion with the 
substantive verb, the particle tama being inserted between 



HOTTENTOT GRAMMAR. 83 

the word or root, and the pronominal remnant, or between 
this and the following particles. 

Present Tense. 



Phir.—Com. 
Vkasitamadaha, We are not poor. 
Vkasitamaduha. You r.re not poor. 
Ykasitamanha, They are not poor. 



Sing. — Mas. 
Vkasitamareha, I am not poor. 
Vkasiztamaha, Thou art not poor 
Vkasibtamaha, Ke is not poor. 

With the future tense tee is used, instead of iama : as, 
Vkasirta tee : I shall not be poor. 

XIII. When the adjective is followed by a noun, it assumes 
a similar form to that of a participle : as, 

Vkasisa kueeri : I am a poor man. 
But if the noun is succeeded by another as the object of a verb, the 
adjective retains its simple form: as, 

Vkasi kueebkje haab fxaha: 
Poor man has stolen a horse. 

XIV. In the conjugation of verbs in general, the substan- 
tive verb is used with the verbal root, in much the same way 
as with nouns and adjectives. In the present tense na is 
used instead of i or ha. 

Paradigm of the verb, Fnau, Strike. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. 



Ma*. 






Fern. 


Fnaurna, I strike. 




Fnautna, 


I strike. 


Fnauzna, Thou strikest. 




Fnausna, 


Thou strikest. 


Fnaubna, He strikes. 




Fnausna, 


She strikes. 


PLURAL. 






Mas. Fern. 


Com; 




Fnaukjena .... Fnausana . . . 


.Fnaudana: 


We strike. 


Fnaukauna . . . .Fnausauna . 


.Fnauduna 


You strike. 


Fnaukuna . . . .Fnauteena 




.Fnaunna : 


They strike. 



Imperfect. — Sing. Mas. 

Fnaurkoha, I struck. 
Fnauzkoha, Thou struckest. 
Fnaubkoha, He struck. 



Perfect. — Sing. Mas. 

Fnaurkjeha, 1 have struck. 
Fnauzkjeha, Thou hast struck. 
Fnaubkjeha, He has struck. 



24 CLTCK CLASS. 



Future. — Sing. Mas. 

Fnaurta I shall strike, 

Fnauzta .Thou shalt strike. 

Fnaubta He shall strike. 

NEGATIVE FORMS. 

Pres. — Fnautamareha, I stvike not. 

Imp. — Fnautamarkoha, I struck not. 

Per/. — Fnautamarkjeha, 1 have not struck. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Sing. Mas. f Plur. Com. 

Ari fnau, That I strike. Adafnau, That we strike. 

Aaz fnau, That thou strike. Adu fnau, That you strike. 

Aabfaau, That he strike. Ann fnau, That they strike. 

Imp. — Arko fnau, That I struck. 

Per/. — Arkje fnau, That I have struck. 

Fut. — Irka a fnau, I should strike. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Fnau : Strike. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Fnaub : To strike. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. — Fnauna, Striking. 

Per/. — Fnauha, Struck. 

Fut. — Fnautana, Slaan zullende. 

XV. The passive voice of verbs is formed by inserting e 
between the root and the pronominal remnant. 

Pres. — Fnauerna, I am struck. 

Imp. — Fnauerkoha, I was struck. 

Perf. — Fnauerkjeha, I have been struck. 

Fut. — Fnauerta, I shall be struck. 

XVI. Verbs appear to have a Reflective form, derived by 
inserting the pronoun sin after the root. 

Present. — Mas. Sing, 

Fnausinena, I strike myself. 

Fnausinzna, Thou strikest thyself. 

Fnausinimna, He struck himself. 






HOTTENTOT GRAMMAR. 25 

In this usage, there is a change in the form of the pronominal remnant 
in the first and third persons, e being used for r or re (tire), and im for b 
(qeimb). 

XVII. A Reciprocal form is found by adding ku to the 
root : as, 

Sidana fnauku : We strike one another. 

XVIII. A Causative or rather Permissive form is also 
used, derived by adding kosi to the root: as, 

Fnaukosi To let strike. 

Fnaukosirna I let strike. 

Tirna fnauekosi bi. , . . I let him strike. 

XIX. The auxiliary verbs, let, can, and may, are thus 
expressed: 

Ha ida fnau Let us strike. 

Choa xaureha I can write. 

Vnoa xaureha I can shoot. 

Qchannkua di xaureha . . I can make clothes. 
Fneikarkje ka a kueesi . .Might I be a man. 

XX. The personal pronouns, when used objectively, are 
incorporated with the verb in two ways : as, 

Tirna fnauzi, or, Fnauzirna I strike you. 

Tirna fnaubi, or, Fnaubirna I strike him. 

Saazna fnaure, or, Fnaurezna You strike me. 

Qeimbna fnaure, or, Fnaurebna. . . . ..He strikes me. 

It would seem from these and some of the preceding examples, that consi- 
derable freedom is allowed to the substantive verb, with regard to the position 
of its component particles, in the construction of sentences. 

XXI. The preposition for, when in connexion with a 
verb, is represented by ba, though it scarcely seems to form 
a part of it : as, 

Ykurrerna bazi I pray for you. 

Sisinerna bazi I labour for you. 

But if/or denotes instead of, another construction is employed : as, 

Sa vnammi xei irna sisin : I work in your place. 

XXII. Verbs of hearing, seeing, feeling, Sfc, require 

D 



26 ALLITERAL CLASS. 

the word vcheib, die plek, at the end of the sentence in 
which they may occur. 

Kurrub irna qnau vcheib 1 hear that it thunders. 

Murna xanniis madooi vcheib . . I see that birds fly. 



ALLITERAL CLASS. 

12. The Alliteral class forms the second and principal 
division of South African languages. Its various dialects 
are of a much higher order than those of the Click class, 
being highly systematic and harmonious in their construction, 
and well worthy of receiving a literature. With the exception 
of the Hottentot and Bushman tribes, the languages of this 
division appear to be spoken throughout the whole of South 
Africa. Their distinguishing feature is alliteration, which 
is produced and regulated by the principle of Euphonic 
concord hereafter explained. The known dialects of this 
class may be divided into four families, — the Congo, — the 
Damara, — the Seciiuana, — and the Kafir. 

CONGO FAMILY. 

13. The Congo family includes the several dialects which 
are spoken in the Congo and neighbouring countries on the 
Western coast, extending from about the fourth to the 
seventeenth degree of south latitude, and included in what is 
termed by some modern Geographers, South Guinea. The 
people who inhabit this extensive region, are represented 
as belonging to the Negro race, with manners and customs 
similar to those usually found amongst that part of the 
human family. Their language was observed, at their first 
discovery, to be different from those of the other Negroes 
of Western Africa. 14 The Roman Catholic Missionaries, 



14 The Portuguese were probably I go. An expedition under Diego Cam 
the first Europeans who visited Coa- | discovered the river Zaire about the 



CONGO FAMILY. 



r 



who appear to hive carried on extensive operations in 
Congo, daring a part of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
turies, further observed that it possessed a great peculiarity 

in its general construction, which they, however, professed 
to regard as something altogether unaccountable, and de- 
fying all rule. A grammar of the Bunda language as spoken 
in Angola, 15 has since been published by one of the Mis- 
sionaries of the Propaganda, which "acknowledges the 
existence of an extensive alliteration, produced by what we 
term the Euphonic concord, though the principle itself, and 
the rules for its application, had not been discovered." 16 It 
seems pretty certain, therefore, that the dialects of the 
Congo family are identical in their grammatical construction 
with those of the Kafir and Sechuana, and consequently 
belong to the same c T ass. This is corroborated by the fact, 
that the principal characteristic of the Bunda language, 
consists in the singular and plural of its nouns, and the 
voices, tenses, and persons of its verbs, being distinguished 
by prefixes instead of terminations. There is also a verbal 
affinity between the three families, which will sufficiently 
appear from a comparison of a few words, extracted by the 
Rev. E. Casalis, of the Paris Missionary society, from a 
work of Mons. Douville on the Congo, and which belong 
to a dialect termed the Mogialoua, 



ENGLISH. 


MOGIALOUA. 


SECHU 


AX A. 


KAFIR. 


Beat 


beta 


betsa 




beta 


Bite 


lumata 


luma 




luma 


Die 


fua 


fua 




fa 


Five 


tauu 


tlanu 




hi ami 


Name 


gina 


le-ina 




i-gama 


Rain 


fula 


pula 




im-vula 



year 1488. On ascending it. " the 
shores proved to be filled with people 
exceedingly black, and speaking a 
language which, though Diego knew 
those spoken on other parts of the 
coast, was wholly unintelligible to 
him." — Historical account of Dis- 
coveries and Travels in Africa, by 
Hugh Murrav, F. R. S. E. VoL 1 : 
p. 64. 



15 Colleccas de Observacoes Gram- 
maticaes Sobre a Lingua Bunda on 
Angoleuse. Lisboa. 1895. A dic- 
tionary had been previously publish- 
ed, entitled. Diccianario da Lingua 
Bunda on Angoleuse, por Fr. Can- 
necattim, Prefeito das Missoes da 
Aogol i e Congo. Lisboa, 1804. 

16 Lev. W. B. Boyce, in his " In- 
troduction" to Kafir grammar. 



ALLITERAL CLASS. 



ENGLISH, 


MOGIALOUA. 


SECHUANA. 


KAFIR. 


Sorcerer 


mi-loji 


mo-loi 




Three 


tatu 


taru 


tatu 


Voice 


kole 


kolu 




Water 


ma-sa 


me-tse 


ama-nzi 



1. The Congoese dialects are spoken by the various 
people dwelling along the coast, from Cape Catherine to 
the confines of the territory of Angola ; comprising the 
Vishi-Congos, who dwell in the remotest parts from the 
coast ; the Congos properly so called, who occupy the 
territories situated along the principal river ; and the 
inhabitants of the towns and districts of Loango, Cabenda, 
and Ambriz. All these speak a somewhat similar language, 
and present a likeness in their physiognomy, and in their 
mental and moral faculties ; though they are not united 
together as members of the same nation. 

A language similar to the Congoese is said to be spoken 
by a people called Kavambu, some of whom have been 
found among the liberated Africans at St. Helena. They 
live at such a distance from the coast, that to arrive at any 
possession of the Portuguese, they are obliged to travel three 
or four moons, often over burning deserts. Their language 
seems to resemble the dialects spoken by the Vishi-Congos, 
and Congos, in several of its words, especially the numerals, 
in which, indeed, there exists a remarkable analogy in all 
the various tongues prevalent along the south-western shores 
of Africa. 

2. The Bunda language is used in Angola ; in the district 
of Bondo, which is governed by an absolute monarch, who 
is represented to be very wealthy in lands, flocks, and slaves ; 
in the adjoining territory of Cassange ; and probably still 
further in the interior. 

The language of the Molouas, who are supposed to live 
about the centre of the continent, in the same latitude with 
Angola and Bondo, is very similar to the Bunda, as slaves 
from Moloua learn the latter almost immediately on their 
arrival in Angola. 

There is also a near affinity between the Bunda and 



DAMARA FAMILY 



29 



Congoese, especially the dialect of the latter which is spoken 
in the district of Sonho. This will be evident from the 
following comparison of their respective numerals : — 



ENGLISH. 


SONHO. 


BUNDA. 


MOGIALOUA. 


One 


motshi 


motshi 


motshu 17 


Two 


sole 


yari 




Three 


satu 


satu 


tatu 


Four 


maia 


uana 




Five 


sanu 


sanu 


tanu 


Six 


samanu 


samannu 




Seven 


samboari 


samhuari 




Eight 


nane 


nakwi 




Nine 


eona 


ivona 




Ten 


shunri 


shunhi 





3. The Benguela dialects appear to have some resemblance 
to the Bunda, as Negroes from Bondo, passed for Benguelas 
at St. Helena, on account of their speaking nearly the same 
language. 18 



DAMARA FAMILY 



14. The Damara family includes the dialects spoken by 
the Damaras, who occupy the territory on the Western 
coast between Namaqualand and Benguela. They are ge- 
nerally called the Cattle Damaras, or the Damaras of the 
Plains, in order to distinguish them from the Hill Damaras, 
who belong to a different race, and speak the Namaqua 
language, as before observed. The Damara 19 language, 



17 Mr. Casalis has the following 
remark in reference to this word, 
in his "Etudes sur la Langue Se- 
chuana." — "Until now we have vain- 
ly sought for an explanation of a 
certain word which the Basutos u- 
sed in their numeration. After ha- 
ving regularly counted as far as ten, 
they express eleven, twelve, &c, by 
a periphrasis, and say, ten with a 
motshu, ten with two motshus, &c. 
For a long time the w-ord motshu 
appeared inexplicable ; now I perceive 
that it signifies one in the Mogialoua 
language. Ten with a motshu, two 
motshus, Src, amounts then to say- 
ing, ten with a unit, two units, &c, 
thus correctly enough expressing the 



numbers, eleven, twelve, &c." 

IS Most of the above particulars 
in reference to the dialects of the 
Congo family, are extracted partly 
from Bowdich's " Account of the 
Discoveries of the Portuguese in the 
interior of Angola and Mozambique,"' 
pp. 137 — 143 : and partly from 
"An Account of the Liberated African 
Establishment at St. Helena," by 
George M' Henry, M. D. &c, late 
surgeon to that Establishment. 

19 Damara is not the native 
national epithet of the people who 
bear that name, but one which has 
been borrowed from the Xamaquas. 
It properly signifies " two Damara 
women", and appears therefore to 



30 



ALLITERAL CLASS. 



though as yet but little known, evidently belongs to the 
same class as the Kafir and Sechuana. This was first ob- 
served by the Rev. J. Archbell, who some years since twice 
visited them, and whose testimony is now corroborated by 
th at of the Rev. R. Haddy, who has lately established a 
Wesleyan Mission amongst them. He thus remarks in one 
of his published letters : " The Cattle Damaras are an in- 
telligent, or rather a lively, and taking class of men. They 
resemble the Bechuanas and Kafirs, and their language is 
a branch of the same family dialect." Mr. Haddy has also pub- 
lished a small elementary work in the Damara language, in 
which the peculiarities of the Alliteral class are plainly dis- 
cernible. A few words and phrases from this little work 
will serve as a specimen, though necessarily an imperfect 
one, from the absence of a translation. 



umuti 

umusengi 

umurandu 

obarandu 

ompati 

ombumbi 

ombambi 

motungu 

omutcna 

tata 

nuka 

tunga 

finga 

rumata 

tubuka 



Nouns. 
umurumendu 
obarumendu 
ekuba 
etoba 
etuba 
itabera 
itutati 
uterna 
unjoko 



omatemba 

omanene 

omaisi 

imbari 

impura 

imbui 

itide 

indui 

inguini 



Verbs. 



kurama 

sengua 

pangua 

katera 

fogera 

vatera 

Short 



rukisa 
pitisa 
jakisa 
porisa 
fakisa 
mineka 
Sentences. 



olonkofo 

olompafe 

olongwe 

otutu 

obambo 

obiguaia 

obitoto 

okurora 

okutira 

koteka 

vereka 

vandeka 

jasana 

sekana 

patana 



Mabungire kumu naani : pokati kobarumendu : omankoti oetu : 
rumendu barim peni : omankoti oenu : nampa moripuratene tfike 



oba- 
u- 



norontonge orombi : omuponde omukukutu : umundu umupurukise 



have been adopted in some inciden- 
tal manner, when the objects of the 
traveller's inquiries happened to be 
two women. Damap is the Namaqua 
term for a male Damara, of which 



damdka is the dual masculine, damara 
the dual feminine, dama Icu the plural 
masculine, and damana the plural 
common. See p. 18. 



SECIIUANA FAMILY. 



31 



umukuru oatjita obandu avefe : kunjoko oariri : ete katuno kutona : 
obe koiio kupaha umukerere umundu uarue : oatuende komatje oakaka 
oabungira. 

SECHUANA FAMILY. 



15. The Seeliu ana family comprises the dialects which 
are spoken by the different Bechuana tribes. 20 Their coun- 
try may be described, in general terms, as lying between the 
twenty-third and twenty-ninth degrees, east longitude, and 
extending from the Orange river on the south, to a little 
beyond the tropic of Capricorn on the north. This family 
may be divided into two principal branches ; — the one 
including the dialects which are used by the more easterly 
tribes ; and the other, those which are spoken by the more 
westerly ones. 

1. The Eastern dialects are used by the Basuto, the 
Batlokwa, who are better known by the name of Mantatees, 2l 
the Batau, the Likhoyas, and some other tribes who have 
been heard of, but never visited. The Basuto occupy most 
of the country which is watered by the Caledon river and its 
tributary, streams, with the exception of the more northern 
parts, which are inhabited by the Batlokwa or Mantatees. 
The Batau dwell, at present, in the Basuto territory. Their 
proper country, however, is more to the north, bordering 
on what is called the district of Windbarg. The Likhoyas, 
who are said to be of a lower cast than the Bechuanas 



20 The terms Bechuana(a variation 
of Bachuana,) and Sechuana, are 
different forms of the same verbal 
root, the former referring to people, 
and the latter to language. Their 
present generic use is generally al- 
lowed to be of foreign origin, as it 
does not appear that the natives 
themselves have any national epithet 
of so extensive an application, and 
has thus been accounted for. It is 
probable that when first visited by 
Europeans, and asked concerning 
the people around and beyond them, 
they would answer. Bachuana, they 
are like ; and if their language were 
inquired of, they would reply, Se- 
chuuna, it is like. The traveller, 



therefore, constantly hearing these 
terms in answer to his questions, 
would naturally suppose them to be 
national ones, and employ them 
accordingly. 

By the Hottentot tribes, the 
Bechuanas are called Brlqua, the 
goat- people. 

It may be also observed, that, in 
the Bechuana country, it appears to 
be a general custom, to confine the 
use of the term Bechuana to the 
Western tribes, the Eastern ones 
being distinguished by their proper 
national epithets, as Basutos, Man- 
tatees, iSrc. 

21 The term Mantatees is a cor- 
ruption of the word Bamatanthi, 



32 



ALLITERAL CLASS. 



generally, both in appearance and manners, are scattered in 
different parts of the country, some being found amongst 
the Basuto, whilst others live considerably to the northward. 
With regard to other and more distant tribes, the following 
extract from one of the Rev. R. Giddy's communications 
to the Wesleyan Missionary Committee, is the only procur- 
able information. " Beyond them, " that is, the Baraputse, 
" in a north-easterly direction, tribes are said to be at no 
great distance, far exceeding the Baraputse in number. 
Amongst other tribes, for instance, there are the Baphiri, 
lying about four hundred miles from the Baraputse. They 
speak the Sisuto dialect, and present, whenever they can 
be visited, a promising field for Missionary effort. There 
are also the Baputini and Basetse, who live still nearer, 
and are in considerable numbers." 

2. The Western dialects are spoken by the Barolong, the 
Batlapi, the Baharutsi, the Bakhatla, the Bawanketsi, the 
Bamangwato, the Bakwena, and other tribes whose names 
and localities are but imperfectly known. The Barolong are 
now occupying a small tract of country adjoining that of the 
Basuto ; but their original territory lies farther to the north, 
and where a small portion of them are again living. The 
Batlapi dwell on the western side of the Vaal river, prin- 
cipally in the vicinities of Griqua Town and Kuruman : and 
beyond them, to the north and north-east, dwell the Baha- 
rutsi, the Bakhatla, and other tribes. A few Barolong and 
Batlapi have settled near the junction of the Caledon and 
Orange rivers, under a petty chief called Lepui. 22 

16. The several dialects of the above tribes, though all 
radically the same, vary in their degrees of similarity. Ge- 
nerally speaking, the dialects of the westerly tribes differ 



which is a tribal epithet in general 
use amongst the natives themselves, 
and signifies, the people of the mother 
of Tantisi. This peculiar mode of 
address arises out of a national cus- 
tom, by which fathers or mothers 
are called after the name of their 
first-born, in preference to their 
own, 



22 The reader will find a good 
deal of authentic and interesting 
information concerning the Bechuana 
tribes, in the respective works of 
the Rev. Messrs. Moffat and Ar- 
bousset. The latter is written in 
French, and was published at Paris. 
An English translation, however, caa 
be procured in Cape Town. 



SECHUANA FAMILY. 



33 



considerably more from those of the easterly ones, than 
either the western or eastern dialects differ among themselves. 
Thus the Sirolong and Sitlapi may be regarded as sub- 
stantially the same language ; and so may the Sisuto and 
Sitlokwa; but between the Sirolong or Sitlapi, and the 
Sisuto or Sitlokwa, the variation is so great, that they may 
be considered, for all practical purposes, as distinct lan- 
guages. The chief difference between the two branches, 
consists in consonantal changes, the eastern dialects bein^, 
in this respect, softer, and nearer the Kafir, than the 
western dialects. The strong guttural of the Sirolong and 
Sitlapi, is simply a soft aspirate in the Sisuto, whilst there 
are several other mutations, such as h, sh, and tl, into f ; 
ts into /?, and sometimes k ; and r into /, and sometimes 
s ; which tend to render the enunciation of the eastern 
dialects more melodious than that of the western ones. The 
following verbal specimens of a dialect in each branch, will 
serve to show both the resemblance and variation which 
subsist between them : 



ENGLISH. 


SISUTO. 


SITLAPI. 


Believe 


lumela 


rumela 


Black 


nchu 


ncu 


Blood 


mari 


mari 


Bones 


masapo 


marapo 


Calf 


konyana 


kuana 


Darkness 


lefifi 


Iehihi 


Day 


motsi 


motsi 


Enter 


kena 


tsena 


Eyes 


matlo 


matlo 


Father 


ntate 


rara 


Fire 


malelo 


mulelo 


Five 


tlano 


tlanu 


Foot 


lenao 


lonao 


Hand 


seatla 


seatla 


Head 


tloffO 


tlogo 


Know 


tseba 


itse 


Life 


bopelo 


botselo 


Live 


pela 


tsera 


Man 


monna 
E 


monona 



34 



ALLITERAL CLASS. 



English, 


SISUTO. 


News 


lifuku 


Milk 


man" 


Moon 


kueri 


Mother 


ma 


Night 


bosigo 


One 


ngue 


Stone 


leyue 


Sun 


letsatsi 


Ten 


shume 


Three 


sefate 


Two 


peli 


Water 


metsi 


Woman 


mosari 



SITLAPJ, 

lihuku 

mashi 

khueri 

ma 

bosigo 

ngue 

leincue 

letsatsi 

shumi 

setlare 

beri 

metse 

mosari 



THE LORD'S PRAYER. 



Sisuto. 

'Ntate oa rona o kua magorimong, 
lebitso la gao le galalele. 

Bo title bogosi yoa gao. Go-ratsang 
ki uena go etsoe mo lefatsing yuale- 
ka legorimong. 

U re fe kayenu bogobe ba rona ba 
metle e otle: 

U re ichuarele libe, yeikareale- 
bala melatu ea bamelatu mogo ro- 
na. 

U si ke ua re isa libeng, u re tlose 
bobeng. Go uena go ba pusho, le 
matla, le toko, ka bopelo bo si nang 
bofelo. Amen. 



Sitlapi. 

Rara oa rona, eo kua magorimong, 
leina ya gago a le itsephisioe. 

Pusho ea gago a e tie. Riha mo- 
nu lehatsing kaha u ratang ua riha 
ka gona yaka kua legorimong. 

Re nee gompionu seyo sa metsi 
eotle : 

U re icuarele melatu ea rona, ya- 
ka re icuarela ba ba nang le melatu 
le rona. 

Mi u si re gogele mo thaelong, mi 
re golole mo boshuleng. Gone bogo- 
si e le yoa gago, le thata, le khale- 
lelo ka bosina bokhutlo. Amen. 



17. In connexion with some of the Bechuana tribes, there 
is found a class of people termed Balala, or, as they are 
more commonly called, Bechuana Bushmen. They appear to 
sustain a relation to the people generally, somewhat similar 
to that which the Bushmen hear to the Hottentot tribes. 
From the isolated manner in which they live, various dia- 
lects have arisen, more or less departing from the original 
language, so that, in some cases, they cannot be understood 
without the assistance of interpreters. 

18. Considerable progress has been made in the forma- 



SECHUANA FAMILY. 35 

tion of a Secliuana literature, by the Missionaries of diffe- 
rent Societies. 

1. In the Sitlapi dialect, Mr. Moffat, of the London 
Society, has published several elementary works. During 
his late visit to England, he passed the whole of the New 
Testament through the press, together with the Book of 
Psalms. Also a translation of the Scripture Extracts, which 
are used in the Borough Road School, London, and a small 
Hymn book. 

2. In the Sirolong dialect, a Catechism, Hymn book, 
Tracts, and other elementary works, have been printed at 
the Wesleyan Press. 

3. In the Sisuto dialect, several portions of the Old and 
New Testaments have been translated and published by the 
Missionaries of the Paris Society, besides a Hymn book, and 
other works. A Hymn book, and some minor publications 
in this dialect, have also issued from the Wesleyan Press. 

4. Two Sechuana grammars have been published, the 
first by the Rev. J. Archbell, in 1837 — 38, which applies 
to the Sirolong, Sitlapi, and other western dialects ; and 
the second by the Rev. E. Casalis, in 1841, written in 
French, and applying to the eastern dialects. 

5. If a few songs may be considered worthy of such a 
distinction, the Bechuanas possess a sort of traditional lite- 
rature of their own. Mr. Casalis has appended a translation 
of the principal of those in use among the Basutos to his 
outline of grammar, and similar ones may also be found 
amongst the other tribes ; but otherwise than for the grati- 
fication of curiosity, they do not appear worthy of much 
notice. The following will serve as a favourable specimen, 
being considered by Mr. Casalis as one of the most poetic, 
both in style and sentiment. 

BASUTO HUNTING SONG. 

Ntlororo oa lela malibogo ; 

O re le mo tlohele ! 

A ee go tsela ka la tsepe tsoana. — ■ 

Motatsana oa koaila-koaila ; 

Oa bona ma e ona a katetse.— 



S6 



ALLITERAL CLASS. 



Koluti oa tuna ramolana; 
Sea etella linonne pele. — ■ 
Li re lia noa; 
E sa le li erne ; 
E sa le linoa 
Moruto oa tse ling'. 



The Intlororo for the river-fords cries ; 

Says she (to the Hunter), O leave me alone ! 

That I may pass through to the antilope white. — 

Her fawn trots slowly along ; 

He sees that his dam is fatigued. — 

The finest of the herd is for the bravest hunter ; 

It is that which marches in front. — 

Say they, let us drink; 

And a halt they make; 

And nought have they to drink, but the urine 

Of those who have been there before them.23 

KAFIR FAMILY. 

19. The Kafir family includes the dialects which are 
spoken by the several tribes who inhabit the Eastern coast, 
extending from the Colonial boundary to within a short 
distance of Delagoa Bay. On the West lie the Bechuanas, 
from whom they are separated, for a considerable distance, 
by an extensive and nearly continuous range of mountains. 
This family may be divided into three principal branches, — ■ 
the Kafir, — the Zulu, — and the Fingoe. 

1. The Kafir- branch is spoken by the Amaxosa, or 
Kafirs proper, 24 who occupy the country between the Keis- 
kamma and Bashee rivers; by the Abatembu, who lie to 
the north-west of the Amaxosa ; and by the Amampondo, 
who dwell along the coast from the Umtata river to the 



23 The above is a free translation 
of the French of Mr. Casalis, who 
observes that " Ntlororo is the poetic 
name for Nonne," which is the bles- 
bok of the Dutch colonists, and the 
antilope pygarga of Naturalists. The 
piece is short and abrupt, describing 
the somewhat hurried thoughts of the 
hunter, as he pursues his prey across 



the arid plain. 

24 These are the people who have 
become so notorious as plunderers 
of the Colony, and who have twice, 
within the short period of twelve 
years, taken up atms against the 
British Government, and each time 
desolated some of the fairest portions 
of the Eastern province. 



KAFIR FAMILY. 



37 



Western boundary of Natal. These several nations are 
closely related to each other, being in fact so many offshoots 
from the same original stock. Their present separate 
condition is of comparatively modern date, having arisen 
from the operation of the law which determines succession 
to the chieftanship, and which naturally tends to the division 
and subdivision of tribes. The Amaxosa form the youngest 
branch. They have only been in existence, as a distinct 
nation, during some twelve generations of their principal 
chiefs. The Abatembu are a few generations older, but in 
their case, as well as in that of the Amampondo, the eldest 
branch, tradition is vague and uncertain. It is pretty evi- 
dent, however, that these last have diverged from some of 
the more eastern tribes, in the same way as the Abatembu 
and Amaxosa have successively diverged from them. The 
process by which these nations have become distinct, 
furnishes a key to the manner in which probably all the 
South African tribes, who speak the Alliteral class of lan- 
guages, have at different periods branched off the one from 
the other. The same process is still in operation, and the 
same results are following. The Amaxosa, for instance, 
are already divided into three principal tribes, namely, the 
Amagcaleka, the Amangqika, and the Amandhlambe. Each 
of these tribes has its own paramount chief, Sirili being that 
of the Amagcaleka, Sandili being that of the Amangqika, 
and Umhala, that of the Amandhlambe. 25 All these chiefs 
act independently of each other in all matters connected 
with their own tribes, but Sirili, being the direct descen- 
dant of the principal chiefs of the nation, is acknowledged 
as the ttkumkani, or king, and exercises accordingly some 
sort of authority in such affairs as affect the national inte- 
rests. In the course of a few generations, therefore, the 
Amaxosa will be broken up into two or three separate n'a- 



25 As some of these names are 
difficult of pronunciation to Euro- 
peans, and are moreover variously 
written in newspapers and other 
publications, it may be right to re- 
mark, that, ia Colonial phraseology, 



the Amagcaleka are usually termed 
Galekas, or Chreli's Kafirs, Chreli 
being a corruption of Sirili, or ra- 
ther Rili ; the Amangqika are gene- 
rally termed Gaikas ; and the Ama- 
ndhlambe, T'Slambies. 



■\ 



38 ALLITERAL CLASS. 

tions, just as other tribes have been, before them. In fact, 
the Amangqika and Amandhlambe tribes, who have recent- 
ly been brought under British jurisdiction, may be consider- 
ed as already virtually distinct from the Amagcaleka, though 
some time will probably elapse, before the distinction is felt 
or observed by the people themselves. The Abatembu and 
Amampondo, whose respective paramount chiefs are Umti- 
rara and Faku, are likewise tending to a similar end, though 
not being so numerous as the Amaxosa, a separation into 
distinct and independent nations does not appear likely to 
occur so soon. 

A small body of Amaxosa are to be found beyond the 
Northern boundary of the Colony, in a small tract of coun- 
try termed the Pramberg, which lies in the corner of the 
angle formed by the northern boundary of the district of 
Beaufort, and the western boundary of the district of 
Colesberg. They consist, it is believed, of a few families 
of the Amandhlambe tribe, who are said to have emigrated 
from lower Kafirland about the year 1819. 

2. The Zulu branch is spoken by the people commonly 
denominated the Amazulu. Their country extends from 
the Eastern boundary of the Natal colony, a considerable 
distance along the coast, and reaches inland as far as the 
Kwahlamba mountains, sometimes called the Drakenberg. 
The Amazulu, properly so called, are comparatively a 
small tribe, and appear to have been of no importance till 
some thirty or forty years since, when it is supposed that 
Tshaka succeeded his father Senzengakona in the chieftan- 
ship, after slaying his brother Umfugasi, the rightful heir. 
At that time the Amazulu and several other tribes were in 
subjection to another chief, who is represented as having 
been of a warlike and enterprising character. Against this 
chief Tshaka rebelled, and after defeating and putting him 
to death, usurped his authority as the paramount chief of 
all the tribes just mentioned, and incorporated them with 
his own as the Amazulu nation. He thus commenced his 
tragical career of conquest and bloodshed, which has 
handed down his name to posterity as the Attila of South 



KAFIR FAMILY. 



m 



Africa. 26 For eleven or twelve years he pursued his destructive 
victories, when he was at length killed by his brother and 
successor Dingani, who followed in the same steps of 
despotism, cruelty, and desolation, till he also was cut off 
by the hand of the assassin, after being completely defeated 
by the emigrant Boers, in 1840.27 From this time Panda, 
a brother of Dingani, has been acknowledged as the supreme 
chief of the Amazulu tribes, and whose career has hitherto 
been of a more peaceful kind than that of his immediate 
predecessors. 

i. This branch is also spoken by the Natives at Natal. 
These people, being refugees or emigrants from the Zulu 
country, are generally called Zulus ; but, properly speaking, 
they are the remnants of different tribes conquered by Tsha- 
ka, who since the accession of Dingani, and more especially 
since that of Panda, and the establishment of the Natal 
colony, have been continually falling off in their allegiance 
to the Zulu chief, and seeking protection and liberty in 
" the white man's country." They are supposed to number 
about a hundred thousand, and arrangements have lately 
been made, by which they are to be formed into settlements, 
in different parts of the colony, of some eight or ten thou- 
sand strong. 

ii. A dialect of this branch is likewise spoken by the 
people of Umzelekazi, 2S who occupied for a few years the 
country near the Kurrichene mountains, but from which 
they were driven by the Boers in 1837, in consequence of 
the murderous attacks which they had made upon some of 
their camps. Since that period they have dwelt a considerable 
distance to the north-east, probably at the back of Inham- 
bane, if not even farther in the interior. The origin and 
conquests of Umzelekazi have been thus related. His father, 
it would seem, was a chief whose territory lay at some 



26 Major Charters. 

27 Dingani was killed in battle 
with the Amaswazi, whilst endea- 
vouring to take possession of their 
territory as a place of retreat in his 
flight from the Boers. 

28 This is the Kafir name of this 



celebrated chief, not inaptly termed 
by Capt. Harris, " The Lion of the 
North." Motselekatse is his Sechu- 
ana name, and of this, or of his Ka- 
fir name, the numerous epithets by 
which he has been designated in 
works of travel, are corruptions. 



40 



AL LITERAL CLASS. 



distance to the north-east of Natal. Being defeated by a 
neighbouring tribe, he fled to Tshaka, with whom he re- 
mained in a state of vassalage till his death. Umzelekazi, 
having succeeded in gaining the confidence of Tshaka, was 
appointed, not long after his father's decease, to the charge 
of a large cattle-post, to which trust he proved faithless. 
He revolted, and fled with his people and the booty to the 
north-west, attacking and destroying in his progress nu- 
merous tribes which then occupied that region. In this 
manner he soon became formidable, his very name inspiring 
terror throughout a vast extent of country. Having subdued 
every tribe from whose opposition he had any thing to fear, 
he selected the territory near the sources of the Molopo 
and other streams for his permanent residence. 29 Here he 
continued the dread of surrounding nations, till he came 
into collision with the Dutch farmers, before whom, as stated 
above, he was obliged to fly. 

3. The Fingoe branch includes the dialects which are 
spoken by the Amafengu, the Amabaca, the Matabele, the 
Amaswazi, and a few other tribes who are only imperfectly 
known. The first three of these tribes, or rather admixture 
of tribes, occupy their present positions, in consequence of 
the native wars which raged with almost unparelled fury in 
the interior, for several years previous to 1828 or 1829, and 
in which Tshaka, Matuwana, and Umzelekazi, were the 
principal actors. This is more or less the case, also, with 
the Barolong, Batau, Likhoya, Mantatee, and Basuto 
tribes, who have only dwelt in the countries which they now 
possess from about 1824, having previously occupied different 
parts of the territory between the present Windburg and 
Magalisberg. During the continuance of those sanguinary 
commotions, it is supposed that not less than a million of 
souls perished, 'either by the assagai, or by famine, or by 
beasts of prey ; whilst many who survived them, were only 
preserved by resorting to the horrible practice of cannabal- 



29 Capt. Harris. — Full particulars 
cf the wars of the Boers, both with 
Dingani and Umzelekazi, will he 



found in Chase's " Natal Papers, 
published at Graham's Town, 1843. 



KAFIR FAMILY. 



41 



ism, — a practice which some of the more degraded continued, 
long after the plea of necessity ceased to exist. 80 

i. The Amafengn constitute the principal remains of 
several nations, which were broken up and destroyed in the 
wars above referred to, chiefly by Tshaka and Matuwana. 
They at length found their way to the country of the late 
Hintsa, amongst whose people they lived for some years in 
a state of abject bondage, and by whom they were generally 
treated with great cruelty. From this servile condition they 
were delivered by Sir Benjamin D'Urban in 1835, when a 
large portion of them removed to Fort Peddie, between the 
Fish and Keiskamma rivers, where, as British subjects, 
they now form a promising settlement. Others of these 
people continue to live in different parts of Kaflrland, par- 
ticularly in the vicinity of Mission stations, and are also 
scattered in considerable numbers throughout most of the 
Eastern districts of the Colony. 31 

ii. The Amabaca are a small tribe now living on the 
western frontier of the Natal colony, which survived the 
general ruin consequent upon the interior wars of Tshaka 
and others. Towards the close of these wars, about 1828, 
they lost their chief Sonnyanga in a battle with the Amabele, 
one of the Fingoe tribes, upon which the daring and warlike 
Ncapai assumed the chieftanship, till his nephew Dushani, 



• SO Cannabali^m, in connexion 
with any of the South African tribes, 
appears to have been first observed 
by the Rev. T. L. Hodgson, during 
one of his journeys in the Bechuana 
country. See his Journal, under the 
date of August 4th, 1823, as contain- 
ed in his Memoirs of Mrs. Hodgson. 
3 1 The term Amafengu is a conven- 
tional national epithet, first applied 
to the Fingoes by the Kafirs, but now 
in general use amongst themselves. 
The root from which it is derived is 
fenguza, and signifies to "seek ser- 
vice," implying, at the same time, 
the total destitution of the person who 
uses it. The word amafengu will ac- 
cordingly mean, " destitute people in 
search of service," and correctly 



characterizes their condition when 
they arrived amongst the Kafirs. 
Their proper tribal epithets are the 
following: Amabele, Abasembotweni, 
Amazizi, Amahlubi, Amakuze, Aba- 
sekunene, Amatetyeni, Amarelidua- 
ni, Abashwawa, Amantunzela, Ama- 
ntozake. Several of these tribes for- 
merly occupied a considerable extent 
of territory to the north-east of Natal, 
whilst others dwelt between the Um • 
zimkulu and Togela rivers, a tract of 
country now included in that colony. 
Of the three latter tribes only a few 
individuals arrived in Kaflrland with 
the other Fingoes. The remainder 
are probably in the neighbourhood 
of Natal. 



42 



ALLITERAL CLASS. 



the late chiefs son, should come of age. One of his first 
acts was to attack the Amabele, many of whom he destroyed, 
whilst the remainder were compelled to fly. For many years, 
he carried on a plundering warfare with his neighbours, till 
at length he fell a victim to his predatory habits, being kil- 
led in one of his expeditions against the Amampondo in 
1845. His nephew Dushani, who was formally installed into 
the chieftanship of the tribe in 1844, appears to be more 
peaceably inclined. 

iii. The Matabele^ 2 comprise such remnants of tribes 
speaking the Kafir language, as have settled in various 
parts of the Bechuana country, within the last twenty years 
or so. They consist, partly of the people of Pakarita, who 
was fallen upon by Matuwana in his flight from Tshaka, 
and at length driven before him ; partly of the people of 
Matuwana himself, who is generally known as the Feca?ie 33 
chief destroyed by the Colonial forces in 1829, when pre- 
paring to invade the territory of Hintsa ; aud partly of the 
people of other tribes, amongst whom are to be found ano- 
ther and smaller remnant of the same nations as the Ama- 
fengu form a part of. These several tribal remnants occupy 
different portions of country in the neighbourhood of the 
Caledon river, and in the vicinity of the Blue mountains, 3 * 
which divide, generally speaking, the Basuto and Mantatee 
countries from Natal and Kafirland. 

iv. The Amaswazi^ are a numerous and powerful tribe, 
dwelling to the west and north-west of the Amazulu, from 
whom they are separated by the Lebombo mountains and 
the river Pongola, aud reaching to within a comparatively 



32 Matabele is a national epithet 
™hich these people have received 
from the Bechuanas. 

33 Fecane is the root of imfecane, 
the Kafir word for desolater or marau- 
der. It must not be mistaken, there- 
fore, for a tribal name, being simply 
a descriptive term by which the Ka- 
firs designate an unknown and foreign 
invader. The tribal name of Matu- 
wana's people is Amangwana. 

34 These mountains are so called 
from the bluish haze which appears 



to envelop them from a distance. By 
the natives they are called Maluti. 
They form a part of the general range 
which higher up goes by the name of 
Kwahlamba mountains, or the Dra- 
kenberg, and still further on, by the 
name of Lebombo mountains. 

35 This tribe is known to the 
Bechuanas by the name of Baraputse, 
i. e. the people of the father of Putse : 
and this name, accordingly, has been 
adopted by the Bechuana Missiona- 
ries. 



KAFIR FAMILY. 43 

short distance of Delagoa Bay. These people have only 
lately been brought to the knowledge of Europeans, prin- 
cipally through the visit of two Wesleyan Missionaries. 
They are represented as the pedlars of the interior, being 
frequently employed, it is said, in that capacity, by the 
Portuguese of Delagoa. In physical appearance they resem- 
ble the Fingoes, and their language, though approximating 
very closely to the Zulu, seems properly to belong to the 
Fingoe branch. 

v. The other tribes referred to as speaking the Fingoe 
dialects, comprise the people of Manila ka-Mpisi, Langa- 
libalela, and Makononto, who live near the Kwahlamba 
range, to the south of the Amaswazi, and at no great dis- 
tance from the Natal colony. 

20. The preceding dialects all vary from each other, 
whether belonging to the same branch or not. But the va- 
riation is in general so slight, that natives of either of the 
tribes find very little difficulty in conversing with each other. 
In the Kafir branch the variation is very trifling. Between 
the Abatembu and the Amaxosa, any difference is scarcely 
perceptible. In the Amampondo dialect, some variation oc- 
curs in the use of a few words. For example : — 

AMAMPONDO. 

cika 
umbila 

intusi 

amabele 

ca 

bada 

umfuno 

yebo 

In the other branches, the dialectic variations are more 
extensive. All these variations, however, are generally of 
such a character as tend not only to link together the seve- 
ral branches of this particular family, but, in some cases, 
also, dialects which are in many respects diverse from it. 
For instance, in the short list of Amampondo words cited 
above, there are some which constitute links of connexion 
between that dialect and both the Zulu and Fingoe bran- 



ENGLISH. 


AMAXOSA. 


Lie 


xoka 


Maize 


umbona 


Milk 


ubisi 


Millet 


amazimba 


No 


hai 


Steal 


ba 


Vegetable 


umfino 


Yes 


ewe 



u 



ALLITERAL CLASS. 



dies ; whilst there are others, again, which serve to establish 
an intimacy between the Kafir and the Sechuana families ; 
thus supplying important evidence of the general identity 
of the whole. As to the leading differences which subsist 
between the three branches, it will be sufficient to observe 
in the general, that the Kafir delights in abbreviation and 
contraction, abounds in the use of clicks, and contains sev- 
eral words of Hottentot extraction. The Zulu, on the other 
hand, more generally retains the full form of words, and is 
much freer from clicks and words of foreign derivation. 
The Fingoe dialects are chiefly distinguished by consonant- 
al changes. In other respects, they appear to resemble the 
Zulu, more closely than they do the Kafir dialects. From 
this remark, however, the dialects which are spoken by the 
Amafengu must generally be excepted, these having lost 
many of their peculiarities in consequence of that people's 
close and familiar intercourse with the Kafirs. The follow- 
ing verbal specimens selected from one or more dialects in 
each brancb, will convey a general idea of the dialectic 
variations of the Kafir family : — 



ENGLISH. 


KAFIR. 


ZULU. 


FINGOE. 


Arrive 


fika 


fika 


figa 


Bread 


isonka 


isinkwa 


isinkwa 


Breathe 


pefumla 


pefumla 


pefumula 


Cattle 


inkomo 


izinkomo 


itinkomo 


Cook 


peka 


peka 


penga 


Cow 


imazi 


inkomokazi 


imazi 


Eyes 


amehlo 


amehlo 


amaso 


Father 


ubawo 


ubaba 


ubaba 


He hears 


uyeva 


uyezwa 


uyeva 


Here 


apa 


apa 


lapa 


I have come 


ndize 


ngize 


ngite 


] say 


nditi 


ngiti 


nditsi 


Kingdom 


ubukumkani 


umbuso 


umbuso 


Let him come 


makeze 




mayeze 


Man 


indoda 


indoda 


intonta 


Many 


ninzi : nintshi 


ningi 


ninti 


Moon 


innyanga 


innyanga 


innyaka 


No 


hai : ca 


hai 


haga: ca: tshe 


Person 


umntu 


umuntu 


umuntu 



KAFIR FAMILY. 



45 



ENGLISH. 


KAFIR. 


ZULU. 


FIXGOE. 


Pot 


imbiza 


imbiza 


impinza 


Rain 


imvula 


imvula 


imfula 


Rest 


pumla 


pumula 


pumula 


Rule 


gweba 


busa 


busa 


Run 


gitshiraa 


gijima 


gijima 


Sink 


tshona 


tyona 


tshona 


Sow 


hlwayela 


hlwanyela 


hlwayela 


Speak 


teta 


kuluma 


kuluma 


Stand 


ma 


ema 


ema 


Steal 


ba : bada 


eba 


eba : bad 


Thank 


bulela 


bonga 


bulela 


Those 


abo 


labo 


labo 


To-day 


namhla 


namhla 


namuhla 


To us 


kuti 


kuti 


kwiti 


Water 


amanzi 


amanzi 


amanti 


Yes 


ewe : yebo 


yebo 


yebo 




THE LORD'S 


PRAYER. 





Ngckwamaxosa. 
Bawo wetu osezulwini : malipatwe 
ngobungcwele igama lako. Ubuku- 
mkani bako mabufike. Tntando yako 
mayenziwe emhlabeni, njengokuba 
isenziwa ezulwini. Mausipe namhla 
nje ukutya kwetu kwemihla ngemi- 
hla. Usixolele izono zetu, njengo- 
kuba nati sixolela abo basonayo 
tina. Ungasingenisi ekuhendweni, 
zusisindise enkohlakalweni. Ngoku- 
ba ubukumkani bubobako, namandhla 
engawako, nobungcwalisa bubobako ; 
kude kube ngunapakade. Amene. 



NgoJcwamazulu. 

Baba wetu osezulwini : malidunyi- 
swe igama lako. Umbuso wako 
mawuze. Intando yako mayenziwe 
emhlabeni apa, njengasezulwini. Si- 
pe namhla isinkwa semihla setu. 
Siyekele izono zetu, njengokuba 
tina sibayekela bona abonayo kuti. 
Ungasizisi ekulingweni, kodwa si- 
kulule ekwoneni. Ngokuba umbuso 
ungowako, namandhla engawako, 
nobukosi bubobako, kube ngunapa- 
kade. Amene. 



21. In the formation of a Kafir literature, considerable 
progress has been made by the Glasgow, Berlin, American, 
and Wesleyan Missionaries. 

1. In the Kafir dialect, the Glasgow Missionaries pub- 
lished the first elementary books, including part of a 
vocabulary. They have also translated some portions of 
the New Testament, of which, one of the Gospels, the two 
epistles to the Thessalonians, and the first epistle to 
Timothy, have been printed. 



46 



ALLITERAL GLASS. 



Mr. Dohne, of the Berlin Society, has published a cate- 
chism, a translation of the Book of Psalms, and some 
minor works. He is also the translator of the several 
epistles to the Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, and 
Hebrews, in the lately completed edition of the New 
Testament. 

From the Wesleyan Press, several editions of elementary 
books have been successively issued. Translations of the 
first and second Conference Catechisms, a Hymn book by 
various contributors, and a translation of the Morning 
Prayer, Litany, Sacramental and other Services, have also 
been published. Detached portions of the Old Testament 
Scriptures, including, Extracts from the Books of Genesis 
and Exodus, a portion of the Psalms, the Book of Proverbs, 
Isaiah, and Joel, have at different times been translated 
and printed. Two or three editions of the Four Gospels, 
the Acts of the Apostles, and the Romans, have succes- 
sively appeared in the course of the last few years. More 
recently, the whole of the New Testament, including the 
five epistles translated by Mr. Dohne, has been publish- 
ed. 36 The remaining parts of the Old Testament are 
either already in manuscript, or in process of translation. 
Other works, also, including a Kafir and English Dic- 
tionary, are in preparation. 

The first Kafir grammar was published by the Rev. W. 
B. Boyce in 1834, of which a second edition was afterwards 
printed in England, with some additions and alterations by 
the Rev. W. J. Davis, together with a short phrase book 
and vocabulary. An English and Kafir vocabulary, by the 
Rev. J. AylifF, has also been printed in England. 

2. The only publication in any of the Fingoe dialects, is 
the first Conference Catechism in the Amaswazi dialect, 



3G It would be wrong to pass un- 
noticed, the valuable service which 
has been rendered to the different 
Missionary Societies, by the British 
and Foreign Bible Society, in the 
important work of furnishing the 
tribes of South Africa with the Word 
of God in their own languages. By 



its frequent and liberal grants of pa- 
per, and more especially by its late 
munificent donation of one thousand 
pounds towards the expences of the 
Kafir translation, it is justly entitled 
to the gratitude and support of 
all who desire the moral and intel- 
lectual advancement of the Kafir race. 



KAFIR FAMILY. 47 

which was printed at the Wesleyan Press in the Bechuana 
country. The Amafengu, both in Kafirland and the Colony, 
use the above Kafir publications, thus rendering it probable 
that any peculiarities which their dialects still retain, will 
soon disappear. 

3. In the Zulu dialect which is spoken by the natives of 
Natal, the American Missionaries have published a few 
elementary books, some of which contain portions of Holy 
Scripture. 

4. Like the Bechuanas, the Kafirs possess a sort of 
native literature in the shape of war and other songs. 
' ' Among the Amampondo even satirical songs may be occa- 
sionally heard ; and among the Amazulu songs embodying 
sentiments indicative of a more than ordinary sensibility, 
are said to exist ; but generally speaking, the African 
intellect does not appear to advantage in the exercise of the 
imaginative faculties. In forensic debates, in legal pleas 
and cross-examinations, the native talent of a Kafir and 
Mochuana appears to advantage ; and no one can witness 
such displays of intellectual gladiatorship without being 
convinced that, in their case, intellect has not been affected 
by the distinction of colour or clime." 37 The following is the 
first Christian song, it is believed, ever attempted by the 
Kafir mind. It was composed, together with the tune to 
which it is sung, several years since, by a native convert of 
the name of Untsikana, who was amongst the earliest 
fruits of Missionary labour in Kafirland. 

KAFIR HYMN. 

Ulo-Tixo umkulu ngosezulwini. 
Unguwena wena Kaka lennyaniso. 
Unguvvena wena Nqaba yennyaniso. 
Unguwena wena Hlati lennyaniso. 
Unguwena wen' uhlel' ennyangweni. 
Ulo 'dal' ubomi, wadala pezulu. 
Lom-Dali-Dali wadala nezulu. 
Lom-Enzi wenkwenkwezi nozilimela. 
Yabinza inkwenkwezi, isixelela. 
Lom-Enzi wemfama, uzenza ngabomi. 

87 Rev. W. B. Boyce. Mochuana | is the singular of Bachuana, 



48 FAMILY VARIATIONS OF 

Latet' ixilongo, lisibizile. 
Ulonnqin' izingel' imipefumlo. 
Ulomkokeli wasikokela tina. 
Ulengub' enkulu siyambata tina. 
Ozandhla zako zinamanxeba wena. 
Ulonnyawo zako zinamanxeba wena. 
Ulogaz' lako liyimrozo — yinina ? 
Ulogaz' lako lipalalele tina. 
Lemali enkulu- na siyibizile. 
Lomzi wako-na-na siwubizile. 



Tbou art the great God — He who is in heaven. 

It is Thou, Thou Shield of Truth. 

It is Thou, Thou Tower of Truth. 

It is Thou, Thou Bush of Truth. 

It is Thou, Thou who sittest in the highest. 

Thou art the Creator of life, Thou madest the regions above. 

The Creator who madest the heavens also. 

The Maker of the stars and the Pleiades. 

The shooting stars declare it unto us. 

The Maker of the blind, of thine own will didst thou make them. 

The Trumpet speaks, — for us it calls. 

Thou art the Hunter who hunts for souls. 

Thou art the Leader who goes before us. 

Thou art the great Mantle which covers us. 

Thou art He whose hands are with wounds. 

Thou art He whose feet are with wounds. 

Thou art He whose blood is a trickling stream — and why ? 

Thou art He whose blood was spilled for us. 

For this great price we call. 

For thine own place we call.38 

FAMILY VARIATIONS OF THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 

9,2. The Congo and Damara families are too partially 
known, to enable us to institute a comparison between them 
and the other families of the Alliteral class. Our remarks* 
therefore, upon this subject, must be confined to some of 



38 This is as literal a translation I to. By " the trumpet," the church 
as could well be made, so as to pre- bell seems to be meant. The word 
serve the sense intended. By " the | translated " Hunter " properly signi- 
bl'md" is probably intended mankind fies a troop of hunters. In the origi- 
in general, or peihaps heathens may rial, the whole line is remarkably ex- 
be what was more particularly alluded J pressive. 



THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 49 

the more prominent differences, which subsist between the 
Kafir and Sechuana families. These are as follow : — 

1. One difference consists in the former having adopted 
the peculiar sounds denominated clicks, as it is generally 
supposed, from the Hottentots, and in some instances, words. 
In these respects, the Kafir branch has apparently suffered 
more than either of the others. It would be wrong to sup- 
pose, however, that every word which contains a click sound 
is of Hottentot derivation. It may well be doubted, indeed, 
whether any click words have come from that source, except 
a few nouns, and perhaps a few particles. The fact appears 
to be, that the Kafirs have substituted the Hottentot clicks 
for other characters, and have thus simply changed the form 
and sound of their own words. This is borne out by the com- 
parison of a few roots, where both the original and the 
adopted forms of words are still in use. Thus : — 

namatela and ncamatela : to adhere to. 

nyamelcela „ ncamekela : to care for. 

tyabatyabaza ,, cabacabaza : to walk in fear. 

isitywetywe „ isicwecwe : a flat object. 

tyatyamba „ qaqamba : to yield pain. 

nyotula ,, ncotula : to pluck out. 

tshitsha „ tshica : to spit. 

twebula „ xwebula : to bark trees. 

qika „ qiqa : to comprehend. 

hluma „ cuma : to grow. 

tyanda „ canda : to cleave. 

tola ,, cola : to pick up. 

None of the Sechuana dialects possess a click sound ; 
though amongst some of the Eastern tribes a few words are 
occasionally heard with a click, and which are probably 
borrowed from the Matabele, with whom they have frequent 
intercourse. 

2. The sound of r, which is of common occurrence in 
Sechuana, is not found in Kafir, though by the introduction 
of foreign words, it will eventually become naturalized. In 
fact, the natives are already beginning to carry on the same 
process in reference to the English r, that we have just 



G 



50 FAMILY VARIATIONS OF 

supposed them to have done with the Hottentot clicks, 
Fortunately, however, in this case, printing will probably 
save the language from such a useless innovation. On the 
other hand, the sound of g, as in gone ; of;, as in jet ; and 
of %, as in zone ; which are often heard in Kafir, especially 
the latter, have no place in the Sechuana alphabet. 

3. Many nouns in Sechuana, particularly those which 
correspond to Kafir singular nouns of the third species, 
have lost their singular prefixes, which is not the case with 
any of the dialects of the Kafir family, though abbreviation 
is in some instances freely adopted. In regard to prefixes, 
and probably in other respects, some of the Zulu and Fingoe 
dialects appear to be the purest of all the South African 
tongues, belonging to the same class, yet known; these hav- 
ing retained more of what we may suppose to have existed in 
the original language than the others. We may select the 
usual singular prefix of personal nouns, for the purpose 
of illustration. This in the Zulu dialects, as well as in some 
of those belonging to the Fingoe branch, is umu, which in 
all probability is the full and original form. But in the 
dialects of the Kafir branch, and likewise in all those which 
belong to the Sechuana family, this prefix is found in a con- 
tracted state. In the latter, it generally takes the form of 
mo, the initial vowel being elided ; and in the former, that 
of urn, the final vowel being elided. In other cases, also, 
this method of abbreviation is adopted; the Sechuana drop- 
ping the initial, and the Kafir the final, letter of the full 
form. 

4. The chief difference between Kafir and Sechuana roots, 
consists in the consonantal changes which they have under- 
gone, according to the habit or taste of the respective tribes. 
None of these changes, however, appear to be arbitrary, 
but, on the contrary, are regulated by a uniform system of 
variation. The vowels are also subject to the same kind of 
change ; and, in some instances, roots have undergone 
abbreviation by the omission of a letter or syllable. The 
following tables will exemplify the usual methods of variation. 
Though only one example of each is given, it must be un- 



THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 



51 



derstood that under most, if not all, of the changes, several 
words are included. This indeed, will be sufficiently evident 
from a comparison of many of the examples, either with 
preceding or subsequent changes. 39 



VOWEL CHANGES. 



KAFIR. SECH. 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


ENGLISH. 


a changes into i 


azi 


itse 


know 


e . . alO 


ebiza 


abitsa 


calling 


„ . . u 


eva 


utlua 


bear 


i . . e 


umlilo 


mulelo 


fire 


„ .. o 


tin a 


rona 


we 


u . . i 


ubusuku 


bosigo 


night 


» .. o 


kulula 


golola 


unloose 




CONSONANTAL CHANGES. 




KAFIR. SECH. 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


ENGLISH. 


b changes into p 


im-biza 


pitsa 


pot 


d .. u 


in-doda 


mo-nona 


man 


„ .. r 


godusa 


rusa 


bring borne 


t 


iu-daba 


taba 


news 


f .. V 


ili-fu 


le-ru 


cloud 


„ .. s 


um-fazi 


mo-sari 


woman 


c 


fan a 


cuana 


to be like 


kh 


futshane 


khutsane 


sbort 


g .. k 


in-gubo 


kobo 


garment 


t 


gidima 


titima 


run 


j .. c 


inja 


inca 


dog 


k .. g 


kokela 


gogela 


lead 


tl 


fika 


fitla 


arrive 


1 . . r 


kolisa 


kborisa 


satisfy 


t 


isi-levu 


tern 


chin 



39 The words in the Kafir list be- 
long to the Kafir dialect; but the 
words in the Sechuana list, are taken 
partly from the Sitlapi dialect, and 
partly from the Sisuto. Hence some 
of the variations which are given may 
not be always primary ones, it being 
quite possible, that some of the words 
have passed through other and inter- 
mediate changes, before they assumed 
their present forms. A better know- 
ledge of some of the interior dialects 
will probably prove this to be the 
case. 



The Sechuana c is equivalent to 
the Kafir tsk, and g, to the Kafir 
guttural r. In the Eastern dialects, 
however, ch is used instead of c, whilst 
their g is little more than an aspirate 
sounded like h, 

40 This change accounts for the 
difficulty which has existed in detect- 
ing a Sechuana participle. In Kanr, 
the variations of form between the 
prefixes of the Indicative mood, and 
those of the participles, are only three, 
but by the above mutation, these 
three are reduced to one in Sechuana, 



52 



FAMILY VARIATIONS OF 



KAFIR. 


SECH.I 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


ENGLISH. 


1 changes 


into ts 


sele 


setse 


remained 


„ 


g 


tukulula 


lukuloga 


loosen 


n 


1 


bini 


peli 


two 


» • • 


r 


umyeni 


monyari 


bridegroom 


p 


tl 


posa 


tlosa 


tbrovv 


jj • • 


ts 


pila 


tsera 


live 


» 


f 


kufupi 


goufi 


near 


j> • • 


c 


pata 


cuara 


handle 


s 


sh 


am a -si 


ma-shi 


milk 


?» t • 


tl 


suka 


tloga 


rise 


» • • 


r 


sabela 


arabela 


answer 


t 


r 


tandatu 


rataru 


six 


?> 


s 


i-tambo 


le-sapo 


v bone 


J> 


1 


in-to 


se-lo 


tbing 


}) • • 


ts 


beta 


betsa 


beat 


V 


b 


vula 


bula 


open 


J> • • 


P 


im-vula 


pula 


rain 


JJ • • 


r 


vumela 


rumela 


agree to 


3> • • 


c 


vuka 


coga 


arise 


5> • • 


tl 


am-eva 


me-utlua 


thorns 


>> • • 


nk 


izim-vu 


li-nku 


sheep 


z 


ts 


zala 


tsala 


beget 


)> 


tl 


za 


tla 


come 


J> • • 


r 


um-fazi 


mo- sari 


woman 


5J 


1 


i-zembe 


se-lepe 


hatchet 


3> • • 


nc 


ili-zwi 


le-ncue 


word 


dhl 


tl 


in-dblala 


tlala 


hunger 


?> • • 


ts 


in-dblebe 


tsebe 


ear 


hi 


tl 


hlaba 


tlapa 


stab 


kl 


tl 


in-kloko 


tlogo 


head 


nib 


P 


umlambo 


molapo 


river 



The forms which are given in both 
Grammars as participles, are very 
improperly called so, if it were only 
for this reason, that they never ap- 
pear to be used as such. They are 
in fact the tenses of the Indicative 
mood with the particle ng affixed, in 
consequence of the relative pronoun 
preceding the verb, and which part- 
icle corresponds precisely to the 
Kafir yo. By referring to the Sechu- 
ana Testament, or examining the 
formation of Sechuana tenses, it will 
bs seen that wherever a participle is 



required, the same forms are used 
as those which belong to the Indica- 
tive mood, with one exception, name- 
ly, that form of the third person 
which corresponds to singular nouns 
of the first species. The prefix of this 
is o in the tense, but a in the partici- 
ple ; and this variation, accordingly, 
though a single one, seems sufficient 
to establish a distinction between the 
tense and the participle, especially 
when it is fully borne out by the usage 
of more perfect dialects. 



THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 



53 



VFIR. 


SECH. 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


ENGLISH 


mv changes into nc 


bomvu 


boncu 


red 


nd . 


t 


tanda 


rata 


love 


ndhl . 


tl 


is-andhla 


se-atla 


hand 


ng 


k 


tenga 


reka 


buy 


nj 


y 


njalo 


yalo 


so 


nk 


ti 


bonke 


botle 


all 


nt 


t 


aba-nlu 


ba-tu 


people 


ny 


n 


in-nyama 


nam a 


flesh 


j> • 


ng 


u-nyana 


nguana 


son 


nz 


ts 


umtunzi 


morutsi 


shade 


tsh 


f 


tshisa 


fisa 


burn 


>) • 


b 


u-tshaba 


baba 


enemy 


»> • 


ts 


futsbane 


kbutsane 


short 


ty 


y 


u-tyalwa 


bo-yaloa 


beer 



By comparing the above consonantal changes with § 42, 
it will be seen that many of them are between letters of the 
same organ, the Kafir preferring the flat sounds, and the 
Sechuana the sharp ones. It will be observed, also, that 
when the former are preceded by the nasal m or n, these 
are dropped before the latter. There is sometimes, again, 
an. interchange between dentals and linguals ; and there are, 
occasionally, other changes which cannot be so easily ac- 
counted for, unless we suppose that intermediate changes 
may be found in other dialects. 



CHANGES THROUGH ABBREVIATION OR OMISSION. 



KAFIR. 

tla omitted 

n 

u 



ma 



SECHUANA. 

ba emitted 
sea 



KAFIR. 

um-ti 

um-yeni 
fa 

pala 
sabela 

SECHUANA. 

pala 
ma-ri41 



SECHUANA. 

se-tlare 

mo-nyari 

fua 

palama 

arabela 

KAFIR. 

im-babala 
i-gazi 



ENGLISH. 

tree[groom 
bride- 
die 

gallop 
answer 

ENGLISH. 

bush buck 
blood 



41 Occasionally, an omission of 
this kind only takes place in the sing- 
ular number, tbe plural noun being 
used in the full form : Thus mu-tla, a 
hare, is tbe singular form, whilst mi- 
butla, hares, is the plural one. A ref- 



erence to the Kafir um-vwidhla, shows 
that the syllable bu is simply a re- 
tention in the plural, of what has 
been lost in the singular, v changing 
into b, according to one of the usual 
methods. 



54 



FAMILY VARIATIONS OF 



SECHUANA. 

go omitted 

ka 

ku 

ni 

ny 

F a 

f 



SECHUANA. 

rusa 

bonala 

gape 

ntsi 

kuana 

pele 

goufi 

isa42 

mo-nnavve 

boela 

le-oatle 

lo-leme 

le-ina 



KAFIR. 

godusa 

bonakala 

ngakumbi 

ninzi [na 

in-konya- 

pambili 

kufupi 

zisa 

um-ninawe 

buyela 

u-lwandhle 

u-lwimi 

i-gama 



ENGLISH. 

bring home 

appear 

more 

many 

calf 

before 

near 

bring 

brother 

return 

sea 

tongue 

name 



From the preceding tables, it will be seen that roots which 
appear totally different the one from the other, are in fact 
the very same, or rather, of the same origin. Thus no one, 
at first sight, would imagine that the Sechuana relca and 
the Kafir tenga, or the Kafir pila and the Sechuana tsera, 
were mere variations of the same root. Yet a knowledge of 
the manner in which consonants and vowels change between 
the two languages, shows that such is the case. As corrob- 
oratory of this, it may be further observed, that one of the 
consonants in the above and other Sechuana words, some- 
times returns in the process of derivation to the original one, 
as it is found in the Kafir root. For example, the Reflective 
form of vela is iteka, and not ireha ; whilst the noun which 
is derived from the verb tsera is botselo, and not botsero. 

5. Changes likewise take place between some of the ter- 
minations and inflections of words in the two families. The 
chief of these are the following : — 



tAFIR. SECH. 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


ENGLISH. 


na changes into ng 


ninina 


leng 


when 


ni . . ng 


bonani 


bonang 


behold ye 


yo . . ng 


otengayo 


eo orekang 


he who buys 



42 This change accounts for the 
omission of the z in the Reflective 
form of Sechuana verbs; thus, the 
Kafir zitenga becomes in Sechuana, 
iteka. The reason of this omission is 
sufficiently obvious. As z is not ac- 



knowledged as a Sechuana letter, and 
as none of its substitutes was thought 
proper to be adopted in such circum- 
stances, this was the only course that 
could be taken. 






THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 



DO 



&AFIR. 


SECH. 


KAFIR, 


SECHUANA. 


ENGLISH. 


ani changes 


into ang 


u-tyani 


bo-yang 


grass 


eni 


eng 


entabeni 


thabeng 


at the mountain 


ini 


ing 


emzini 


motsing 


at the place 


oni 


ong 


in-kloni 


li-long 


shame 


uni 


ong 


in-kuni 


lo-gong 


fire-wood 


weni 


ong 


emehlweni 


matlong 


in the eves 


wini 


ung 


endhlwini 


'ntlung 


in the house 


azana 


anyana 


in-tombazana 


mo-robanyana 


little girl 


isela 


isetsa 


tengisela 


rekisetsa 


cause to buy for 



6. Besides the abbreviation which the prefixes of Sechu- 
ana nouns have undergone, they have also suffered from 
consonantal and vowel changes. Thus, the prefixes bu and 
lu, which are the abbreviated forms of the Kafir ubu and 
ulu s usually change into bo and Jo, just as rnu from umu 9 
changes into mo; whilst zi, the abbreviated form of the 
Kafir plural prefixes isi s izim, and izln, changes into li; 
and si, mi } and li, the contracted forms of the Kafir isi, 
imi, and ill, change respectively into se, me, and le. The 
following table will afford a comparative view of the nomi- 
nal prefixes in both languages : — 



! 
! « 

s 

a 

r 


SINGULAR PREFIXES. 


PLURAL PREFIXES. 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


i 


umu changes into mo 


aba changes into ba 


2 


ili . . le 


ama .. ma £3 


3 


in, im, i 'n 'm 


izixn, izin, izi . . li 


4 


isi . . se 


izi . . li 


5 


Ulll .. lo44 


izim, izin, izi. . li 


i 6 


umu . . mo 


imi . . me 


\ 7 


ubu . . bo 




! 8 


uku . . go 





7. Similar changes take place in the verbal and other 
prefixes, though not always corresponding ones. Thus, 
whilst the z of the nominal prefix ixln is changed into I, the 



43 Ma occasionally changes into I 44 This prefix is generally le, iu 
me, for the sake of euphony. the Sisuto dialect. 



56 



UNCLASSIFIED DIALECTS OF 



£ of the corresponding possessive particle za is changed 
into ts, and the & of the corresponding personal pronoun 
zona, into c, as in the following examples : 



Kaf. 



Ixinto zomfazi — zona 



c T ., . • > Things of a woman — they. 

Sech. — L\\o tsa. mosari — cona:J ° J 

Hence, in these and similar circumstances, the alliteration 
is broken, and the peculiar euphony of the language is con- 
sequently so far destroyed. The following table will show 
the variation in the present verbal prefixes of the two fami- 
lies : — 



2 

o 

a 


to 

m 

o 
W 

a. 


SINGULAR PREFIXES. 


PLURAL PREFIXES. 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


KAFIR. 


SECHUANA. 


I 




ndi changes into ki45 


si changes into re 


II 




u (no change) u 


ni . . lo 


III 


1 


u changes into o 


ba (no change) ba 




2 


li .. le 


a . . a 




3 


i . . e 


zi changes into li 




4 


si . . se 


zi . . li 




5 


lu .. lo 


zi .„ li 




fi 


U . . 


i .. e 




7 


bu . . bo 






8 


ku .. go 





8. Some nouns which have the same roots in both lan- 
guages, have nevertheless different prefixes. This is suffi- 
ciently evident from several of the examples already given 
in the preceding tables. 46 

UNCLASSIFIED DIALECTS OF THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 



23. There are several other dialects belonging to the 
Alliteral class, whose classification must be left for the pre- 
sent, as there are no certain data from which any could be 
formed. The dialects now referred to, include those which 



45 This prefix is ngi in the Zulu 
branch of the Kafir family, and is 
probably the one with which hi is 
more immediately related. 



46 It was formerly supposed that 
the Sechuana language possessed a 
dual number ; but this opinion has 
proved to be incorrect. 



THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 



57 



are spoken throughout the vast and unexplored region, ly- 
ing between the Southern Tropic and the Equator, and 
bounded on the West by South Guinea and Damara land, 
and on the East by the Indian ocean. All the research yet 
made proves that the languages spoken in this extensive 
portion of South Africa, are at least similar to those of the 
Kafir and Sechuana families ; and, in many cases, Kafir 
and Sechuana roots have been detected. 

1. Commencing with the Eastern coast, the first dialect 
which meets attention is that spoken by the natives of Dela- 
goa Bay. This has some appearance of belonging to the 
Fingoe branch of the Kafir family, an opinion which is in 
part corroborated by the fact, that the Amafengu, when 
living in their own countries, were in the habit of trading 
with the tribes in that neighbourhood. la many respects, 
however, it seems to have something in common with both 
the Kafir and Sechuana families ; and may possibly belong, 
therefore, to another family, in which the leading differen- 
ces of those languages are in some measure blended. The 
following comparison of a few words in the Delagoa dialect, 
though several of them are plainly deficient, will show how 
closely it resembles the Kafir and Sechuana dialects : 



ENGLISH. 


KAFIR. 


DELAGOA. 


SECHUAN 


Bed 


ukuko 


lakuko 




Bird 




yonyano 


nunyane 


Bite 


lutna 


lum 


lum a 


Blood 


igazi 


gati 


mari 


Bones 


amatambo 


marambo 


marapo 


Breath 


umpefumlo 


ifemula 


pefu 


Cattle 


inkomo 


hom 


khomo 


Cold 




shir a me 


serame 


Die 


fa 


fa 


fua 


Entrails 


amatumbu 


marumbu 




Ear 


indblebe 


inglebe 


tsebe 


Eyes 


ameblo 


tihlo 


matlo 


Flesh 


innyama 


inyr.niD 


nam a 


Great 


kulu 


kulu 


gulu 


Head 


inkloko 


sboko 


tlogo 


Neck 


intamo 


inhamo 


thamo 



58 



UNCLASSIFIED DIALECTS OF 



ENGLISH. 


KAFIK, 


DELAQOA. 


SECHUANA 


Oil 


amafuta 


mafusa 


mafura 


Pig 


ingulubi 


golua 


kulubi 


Eibs 


imbambo 


imbambo 




Stand 


yima 


yim 




Swim 


hlamba 


hlambo 




Teeth 


amazinyo 


matinyo 


meno 


Ten 


ishumi 


kumi 


sbumi 


Three 


tatu 


raru 


tarn 


Two 


bini 


bizi 


beri 


Walk 


hamba 


famba 




Water 


amanzi 


amati 


metse 



Of the dialects spoken between Delagoa Bay and Mo- 
zambique, including those of Inhambane, Sofala, and Qui- 
limane, little is known. There can be no doubt, however, 
but what they belong to the Alliteral class. From Mozam- 
bique to as far as Mombasa and Melinda, lie the Sowauli, or, 
as they are termed by Dr. Krapf, the Sooahelees. A few of 
these people are also found in the island of Zanzibar, where 
they are called Mookhaden. From a statement of Dr. Krapf 
in the " Missionary Register," it would appear that the 
Sooahelee language is spoken even beyond Melinda. On his 
visiting Barawa, which lies about two degrees north of the 
Equator, he thus writes : "The language of Barawa is So- 
malee; but most of the inhabitants understand the Sooahe- 
lee language, which is spoken from Mukdeesha to Mozam- 
bique, but only on the coast, not in the interior." The 
following extract from a speech of Dr. Adamson, at a 
Wesleyan Missionary meeting in Cape Town, will show the 
position of this extensively used language. " Having been 
favoured with a cursory inspection of two manuscript gram- 
mars of languages spoken by tribes in the far interior, I 
found that one (the Sooahelee) of these tongues was a 
slightly modified form of the Sechuana. A letter lately 
received from the eminent Missionary Krapf, by whom these 
grammars had been prepared, has confirmed this view. — I 
learn also from the German Missionaries, and those of your 
Society, that the same tongue is spoken by the Damaras. 
• — The other language to which I have alluded, appeared 



THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 



59 



to be in every respect different. It is spoken by the Gtilla 
race. " Two tribes are mentioned by Dr. Krapf, as living 
in the neighbourhood of Mombasa, namely, the Wonicas, 
and the Wakambas. Their dialects appear to be members 
of what might be called, the Sooahelee family, and are 
probably very similar to each other, as " those Wakambas 
who have much intercourse with the Wonicas understand 
and speak the Wonica language perfectly well. "47 Some- 
thing has been done, also, in these languages, towards form- 
ing a literature. "Dr. Krapf has translated the Book of Gen- 
esis, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles to the Romans, 
Galatians, and Ephesians, the General Epistles of St. 
Peter, and the First General Epistle of St. John, into the 
Sooahelee language ; and the Gospels of St. Luke, and 
St. John, into both the Sooahelee and the Wonica lan- 
guages. He has also compiled a Dictionary, containing 
above ten thousand words, of the Sooahelee, Wonica, and 
Wakamba languages ; and has prepared a Grammar of the 
same languages for the use of future Missionaries. In vari- 
ous other minor particulars, also, Dr. Krapf has laid the 
foundation of a critical acquaintance with a language, or 
rather a family of languages, which has filled him, he says, 
with the highest admiration ; its internal construction and 
peculiarities being such as no other language, so far as he 
is aware, can boast. " 4S 

The following list, though it contains only a few words 
belonging to any of the above mentioned dialects, affords 
nevertheless some proof of their verbal affinity with the 
Kafir and other languages of the same class. 



English . . 
Kafir . . 
Sechuana 
Quilimane 
Sooahelee 



eyes 

amehlo 
matlo 
meto 
matslio 



English Europeans 



Kafir abelungu 

Sooahelee wasungo 

English . . . L . . . . flesh 

Kafir innyama 

Delagoa inyamo 

Sooahelee yamo 



47 Dr. Krapf. 

48 "Missionary Register. " April, 
I84i>. — Dr. Krapf has prohahly not 
seen the Kafir and Sechuana gram- 



mars, both of which explain, though 
briefly, the principle that regulates 
the " internal construction and pecu- 
liarities" which he so justly admires. 



60 UNCLASSIFIED DIALECTS OF 

English men Delagoa kumi 

Kafir amadoda Congo ekumi 

Fingoe amatonta Sooahelee hone 

Sechuana banona English three 

Sooahelee ivatoto Kafir tutu 

English sleep Delagoa raru 

Kafir lata Sooahelee dato 

Sechuana lala English two 

Sooahelee lale Kafir bini 

English ten Delagoa bizi 

Kafir ishumi Sooahelee bizi 

2. The languages of the more inland and interior regions 
are very partially known. Those which are spoken between 
Damara land and the country lying at the back of Sofala, 
are supposed to belong to the Sechuana family. To this 
effect the Rev. R. Giddy writes in one of his letters to the 
General Secretaries of the Wesleyan Missionary Society. 
" As far, " he says, "as we can ascertain from incidental 
information, obtained now and then from the north .and 
north-east, the regions are densely inhabited with people, 
all speaking the Sechuana language, or some dialect of it, 
and living in a far more compact and congregated state than 
those tribes inhabiting the southern regions. " At some 
little distance from the Eastern coast, and almost due north 
from the mouths of the Zambesi river, lie the Makoas, to 
which nation some of the emancipated slaves of the Cape 
colony belong. They are supposed to extend from about the 
seventeenth to the ninth or tenth degree of south latitude. 
Still further in the interior, and to the north-west of Mo- 
zambique, from which place they are thought to be two or 
three months' journey, dwell the Monjous. In reference to 
these and some other tribes which have already passed 
under review, Mr. Boyce observes in the " Introduction" 
before quoted, that they all " speak languages only slightly 
differing from the Sechuana spoken near the Cape colony. 
An Arab," he adds, "who had travelled for commercial 
purposes from Mombasa to Mozambique, at some distance 
from the sea coast, gave the writer (Mr. Boyce) some spe- 
cimens of the languages spoken among the tribes through 






THE ALL1TERAL CLASS. 61 

which he had passed, in which Kafir and Sechuana words 
were easily recognized. Natives conveyed from the interior 
to Mozambique, and from thence taken to the Bechuana 
country, have found no difficulty in making themselves 
understood ; sufficient proof this of a radical identity of 
language." The following examples will corroborate this 
testimony. 

English antilope Sechuana .. ,. .. nama 

Kafir imbabala Makoa mama 

Sechuana pala Monjou niyama 

Monjou jepala English pig 

English bird Kafir ingulubi 

Sechuana nunyane Sechuana knlubi 

Delagoa yonyano Delagoa golua 

Makoa mini Makoa holua 

Monjou nuni Monjou leguluvi 

English eyes English thine 

Sechuana math Kafir ako 

Quilimane meto Makoa ahwau 

Makoa meto English water 

Monjou mezo Kafir amanzi 

English flesh Makoa mazi 

Kafir innyama Monjou mizi 

Some of the more interior tribes living opposite the 
Mozambique coast, have lately been brought to light through 
a visit of the Rev. T. Arbousset, one of the Missionaries 
of the Paris society, to a number of captured negroes, at 
Cape Tow T n. He found that the majority of them belonged 
to the Makoas, and two other tribes, whom he terms Ma- 
zenas, and Koniunkues. The following remarks on these 
people, are extracted from a communication which Mr. 
Arbousset made to one of the Cape Papers. " The Mazenas 
are distinguished by a scar lengthways down the nose, which 
occurs pretty often along the river Maputa : for this reason 
the Dutch emigrants called the inhabitants, on seeing them 
first, knopnose. The Koniunkues also have this scar along 
the nose, and extending a little higher up the forehead, but 
it is crossed besides, evidently a Portuguese idea. They 
also tatoo themselves variously on the breast and arms, not 



62 



UNCLASSIFIED DIALECTS OF 



in token of military exploits like the Bechuanas, but for 
ornament. And by a far greater stretch of this little vanity, 
many of them chip their teeth to a point, and in other 
forms. In general, " the people of these tribes " have the 
hair much less woolly, the lips thinner, the colour not so 
dark as the negroes. In these three respects, they approach 
the Kafirs, and especially the Bechuanas. The Koniunkues 
seem to be the farthest removed in the interior. One of 
them assured me that he had been three or four months in 
one Arab gang, before they reached the channel of Mo- 
zambique. The Mazenas live nearer the coast, probably 
between the former and the Makoas. " The Koniunkue 
" language is soft and musical, the words simple and liquid, 
the vowels distinct, and almost always one to every conso- 
nant, as in Kafir and Bechuana, which it much resembles; 
but it has not the disagreeable click of the former, from 
what I know of it. " Mr. Arbousset further observes, that 
most of the negroes understood one another, though some 
of them had come from tribes living very remotely apart 
from each other. The following comparative table will show 
that a near verbal affinity may be traced between the Ko- 
munkue, and the Kafir and Sechuana languages. 



ENGLISH. 


KAFIR. 


KONIUNKUE. 


SISUTO. 


Chin 


isi-levu 


ntefu 


teru 


Cloud 


ili-fu 


nkunku 


le-ra 


Eye 


ili-so 


li-zo 


le-hlo 


Eyes 


amehlo 


maro 


maihlo 


Five 


hlanu 


tanu 


hlano 


Four 


ne 


cheche 


nne 


Man 


in-doda 


ma-muna 


mo-nna 


Mouth 


umlomo 


moromo 


molomo 


One 


nye 


moza 


ngue 


Ox 


in-kabi 


ngope 




Rain 


imvula 


umvala 


pula 


Teeth 


amenyo 


meno 


meno 


Three 


tatu 


taru 


taru 


Tongue 


ulwimi 


ovureme 


leleme 


Town 


umzi 


motse 


motse 


Tree 


umti 


mote 


sefate 



THE ALLITERAL CLASS. 



63 



ENGLISH. 


KAFIR. 


KONIUNKUE. 


SISUTO. 


Two 


bini 


pele 


peli 


Water 


amanzi 


mose 


metsi 


Woman 


umfazi 


mokatse 


mosari 



3. Proceeding to the Western coast, there would seem to 
be a slight probability, that some of the languages spoken 
between the district of Loango and the kingdom of Benin, 
have some connexion with the Alliteral class. This proba- 
bility rests upon the circumstance, that there is an apparent 
verbal affinity between the Kafir, and certain dialects spo- 
ken in different parts of that territory, in the case of a few 
numerals. A comparison of a few words of this class, found 
in the " Classical Museum, " with the Kafir and other 
Alliteral languages, will show the extent of the supposed 
affinity. 



English one 

Kafir nye 

Sechuana ngue 

Pongo neno 

Bonny inga 

English two 



Sechuana 
Pongo . , 
Bonny . . 
Rungo . . 



nne 
nai 
vine 
nai 



Kafir . . 
Sechuana 

Bunda . . 

Pongo . . 

Rungo . . 

English . . 

Kafir . 



bini 
beri 
yari 

ban 
mbani 
three 
taiu 



Sechuana taru 

Mogialoua tatu 

Sonho safu 

Rungo ntcharoo 

Bonny tarah 

Pongo , . . char 

Eiiglish four 

Kafir ne 



Bunda uana 

Ibo aim 

English five 

Kafir hlami 

Mogialoua tanu 

Sonho . . . , . . . . sanu 

Pongo tan 

Bonny sono 

Rungo otani 

Benin tang 

Calabar etune 

English ten 

Kafir islmmi 

Delagoa kumi 

Congo elcumi 

Pongo , igoum 

Rungo gum 



The language which appears to possess the greatest 
probability of belonging to the same class as the Kafir, is 
the Pongo, spoken in the Gaboon country, and which is 
said to be the same as " the Empoongwa of Bowdich, and 



84 UNCLASSIFIED DIALECTS. 

the Rungo of Mrs. Kilham. " This opinion receives some 
additional confirmation from the fact, that the only other 
word, besides numerals, which occurs in the lists of the 
" Classical Museum" as belonging to the Pongo or Rungo 
dialect, bears a close affinity to the Kafir. The word re- 
ferred to is Jcouni, wood ; which has every appearance of 
being the same as in~kuni, fire-wood. No decision, how- 
ever, can be safely arrived at, with regard to the true 
position of any of these dialects, in the present meagre 
state of our information. The mere circumstance that some 
sort of affinity exists between three or four of their numerals, 
and the corresponding ones of the Kafir and similar lan- 
guages, is by no means a sufficient reason for at once 
including them under the Alliteral class. On the one hand, 
there is just resemblance enough to excite the suspicion, 
that such may eventually be done; whilst, on the other, there 
is a possibility, that that resemblance may prove to be more 
accidental than real. 



ON THE NATURE 



OF THE 



KAFIR LANGUAGE. 



24. From the very commencement of Missionary operations 
amongst the Kafir tribes, it was observed that their lan- 
guage possessed some great peculiarity in the mode of its 
etymological structure. For a long time, this peculiarity, 
though a subject of anxious inquiry and careful study, con- 
tinued enveloped in mystery. By degrees, however, some 
clue was obtained, which led at length to the discovery of 
the principle that caused it. This principle was appro- 
priately termed by its discoverer, the Rev. W. B. Boyce, 
the Euphonic concord, and constitutes, as before observed, 
the peculiar characteristic of the whole class to which the 
Kafir language belongs. The way being thus prepared, 
the first Kafir grammar, which formed, at the same time, 
a key to all the other dialects of the Alliteral class, was 
immediately issued from the press. As is clearly shown in 
that work, the whole of the grammatical construction of the 
language is influenced by, and dependent upon, the Eu- 
phonic concord. The various changes of which Kafir words 
are susceptible, according to their relative position with 
others in the same proposition, are usually accomplished by 
means of prefixes, all of which have a correspondency of 
form and use. The euphony which is promoted in the 
speaking of the language by this method of government, was 






66 EUPHONIC CONCORD. 

what determined the designation of the principle by which 
it is regulated. This euphony is consequent upon the repe- 
tition of the same letter or letters, in the beginning of two 
or more words in the same sentence. A particular set of 
letters, which are termed, for the sake of distinction, Eu- 
phonic letters, are thus employed ; the same letter or letters 
belonging to the same set of corresponding prefixes, and in 
fact running through them. By this means, a uniform sys- 
tem of alliteration is sustained throughout the grammatical 
formations of the language, rendering it one of the most 
curious and ingenious ever known. 49 An example or two 
will serve to illustrate these remarks : 

Isono jam sikulu side singabi nakuxolelvva : 

My sin is greater than that it may he forgiven* 

Zonke izinto esilungileyo zivela ku-Tixo ; 

All good things proceed from God. 

2?aza ftapendula Sonke a&antu, 6ati : 

Then answered all the people, and said. 

Nd'mge-nd'imz jidedwsa And not I only. 

The alliteration, however, is not always so obvious to the 
eye, as it is in the above examples, in consequence of the 
mutation of vowels, and the contraction to which some of 
the prefixes of nouns and other words are subject. This 
will be sufficiently evident from a comparison of the follow- 
ing examples, each of which is written in two ways ; first, 
according to the usual method, and secondly, as it would 
be written were no change or abbreviation to take place : 

Waza wapendula no-Yudasi : | 

TT „ j , v , . y Then answered Judas also. 

4/aza wapendula naw-Yudasi : J 

Yati inkosi yake enkulu ; •» 

7 .- . i . . , .11 > His great chief said, 
iati 2nkosi i&ke eenkulurj & 

Izwi lika-Tixo lilungile : 

I/izwi ftka-Tixo Zilungile 

Inkomo y mhini zake : •» 

Izinkomo eaimbini zake :} His tw0 catlle * 

49 The reader will find more on I "Grammar," under the head of "Ge- 
this subject in the third part of the | neral principles of construction/" 



V The word of God is right. 



GRAMMATICAL FORMATIONS. 



25. In the orthographical construction of Kafir words, 
formation is a distinguishing feature. They generally con- 
sist of a rooty which contains the leading or fundamental 
idea, and a prefix, usually indicative of specific relation- 
ship to the general principle of Euphonic concord, and in 
most cases including some accessory idea, more or less 
distinct, which modifies the radical one according to the 
full and perfect idea intended to be represented. Some of 
the prefixes, again, especially the nominal ones, may be 
further modified by others, when the principle of formation 
advances to that of composition, as is plainly indicated by 
the coalition and omission of sounds which take place under 
those circumstances. 50 Hence ideas, considerably modified 
and extended, are expressed in the united and compact 
form of a single word. The Kafir language, accordingly 
is essentially a 'polysyllabic one, the occurrence of monosyl- 
lables, either as words or roots, being comparatively rare. 

26. In all grammatical variations of form, the Kafir lan- 
guage is eminently distinguished by system and regularity. 
The noun is the living element of the proposition. On the 
form of its prefix, depends that of most of the subordinate 
parts of the subject, as also that of the verb of the predi- 
cate, according to rules arising out of the principle of 
Euphonic concord. The several usages of this language, 
accordingly, are nearly altogether free from those arbitrary 



50 The principle of formation does 
not appear to be sufficiently acknow- 
ledged, in the present system of the 
Sechuana orthography. Take, for 
instance, the prefixes of verbs. These 
are all written separately from the 
root, as though they constituted in- 
dependent pronouns ; yet they are 
never used as such, any more than 
are the corresponding person-endings 
in the case of Latin, Greek, and He- 
brew verbs. To write, Id rata-, u rata, 
o rata, fyc, is just as objectionable, 
as it would be to write, ame m, ame s, 
ame t, Sfc, or, lamad ti, lamad fa, §c. 
Such a splitting up of words as is 
here implied, seems to contravene 
all just notions of the province of or<* 
tkography. As usually considered, 



the true orthography of a language 
depends upon the proper recognition 
of words, as they exist in their form- 
ed or complete state, and not simply 
upon the knowledge of their separate 
and constituent parts. However use- 
ful and necessary this latter may be, 
in teaching the origin and derivation 
of words, its exhibition belongs not to 
orthography, but to the dictionary 
and grammar. 

With regard to the principle of 
composition, it may be observed, 
that it does not necessarily possess 
so extensive an influence in the Sechu- 
ana dialects, as it does in those of the 
Kafir family. One reason is, that the 
prefixes of their nouns begin with 
consonants instead of vowels. 



6S PRECISION OF EXPRESSION. 

variations, usually termed exceptions, which are met with 
in many others. It is worthy of remark, also, that it is 
correctly spoken by all classes of the community, which is 
not the case, perhaps, with any of our European tongues. 
As a very general, if not invariable, rule, a Kafir will 
never be heard using an ungrammatical expression, but he 
will always connect his words together, so as to preserve 
the proper system of alliteration throughout the same pro- 
position. Thus, on the one hand, he would never say, 
abantu uyeza, the people is coming ; nor, on the other, 
would he use abantu z\yeza, to express, " the people are 
coming, " but abantu bayeza : for though ziyeza means 
"they are coming," yet the form of the prefix (si) shows 
that abantu cannot be the subject referred to by the verb. 

27. The Kafir language is also distinguished by a remar- 
kable precision of expression. The minuteness with which 
the idea is often expanded and developed in the external 
form, is almost extreme. The verb is peculiarly rich in 
this respect. The power which it possesses of modifying 
and ramifying the radical idea, by means of its various 
tenses, and forms of tenses, all of which are used negative- 
ly as well as affirmatively, is nearly unlimited. Yet this 
very minuteness of expression by the outward form, is at- 
tended in some degree with disadvantage. In our own 
and similar languages, the flow of thought is never inter- 
rupted, but both ideas and words glide on smoothly and 
harmoniously together. The Kafir language, however, does 
not possess this degree of perfection. The easy and rapid 
flow of thought, is evidently sacrificed for the sake of ex- 
ternal connexion. Hence the form, whilst it contributes to 
the precision of the language, at the same time refuses, as 
it were, to follow the idea ; and the flow of thought, accor- 
dingly, receives a temporary interruption. Thus, one cannot 
say in Kafir, " A good man loves God : " that is, he cannot 
express such a proposition, as to its outward form, in an ex- 
actly corresponding manner: but the language employed, is — 

Umntu olungileyo uyaratanda u-Tixo : 
A-raan who-is-good he-him-loves God. 



COPIA VERBORUM. 69 

28. The Kafir copia verborum is greater than one would 
expect to find in the language of an uncivilized people. It 
is capable, moreover, of considerable extension from its 
own resources ; and consequently, the introduction of fo- 
reign words is seldom needed. 

1. Concrete nouns are very numerous, especially those 
which are usually denominated appellatives. Many words 
are individuated in this language, to a much greater extent 
than they are in some others. Thus, it has a word for day 
in its ordinary acceptation (mnhla); another for day as 
distinguished from night (immini)\ as well as one which 
includes the space of twenty-four hours (usuku). It possesses 
likewise a word for man in his generic character, (umntu, 
homo,) ; and another for man viewed in relation to sex, ( in- 
doda, vir,) ; as well as words for expressing, a lame man 
(IsiqwalaJ, a deaf man (isitulu), a blind man (imfama), 
and old man (ixego), &c. The same kind of individuality 
is observable in the names of animals, and also in those of 
inanimate objects. 

2. Abstract nouns, also, are sufficiently abundant, ifw r e 
include those which may be derived from verbs. In this way 
many nouns can be formed, which, though never heard 
before, would be immediately understood by any one ac- 
quainted with the primitive. 

3. Verbs and pronouns are tolerably numerous, but ad- 
jectives and particles, etymologically considered, at least, 
are comparatively few. Their place is liberally supplied, 
however, by the syntactical usages of the other parts of 
speech. 

In some classes of words there is of course a deficiency, 
owing to the very circumstances of the people. Such words, 
for instance, as serve to define the higher susceptibilities 
and emotions of the mind, together with the technical terms 
of science, philosophy, and theology, are not to be found. 
The nice and metaphysical distinctions which are involved 
in the use of such terms, could hardly indeed be expected 
to exist amongst an illiterate race. 

4. There is a difference observable amongst some of the 



70 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 



Kafir tribes, in reference to the use of certain words, arising 
from a kind of superstitious objection which they feel against 
employing a word, that is similar in sound to the name of 
one of their former chiefs. Thus, the Amambalu do not 
use ilanga, the general word for sun, because their first 
chief's name was Ulanga, but employ isota instead. For a 
similar reason, the Amagqunukwebi substitute immela for 
isitshetshe, the general term for knife, 

5. It may be mentioned as a remarkable fact, that the 
Kafir women have many words peculiar to themselves. This 
arises from a national custom, called uJcuhlonipa, which 
forbids their pronouncing any word, which may happen to 
contain a sound, similar to one in the names of their nearest 
male relatives. Such words, therefore, do not add to the 
vocabulary of the language, being simply substitutes for 
others under certain circumstances. Specimens, accordingly, 
would be useless, for whether a larger or smaller number 
were given, they could only be correct to a very limited 
extent. The same reason that occasions substitutes for 
words at all, necessarily leads to their multiplication, since 
there may be many women, even in the same tribe, who are 
no more at liberty to use the substitutes employed by some 
others, than they are to use the original words themselves. 

29. The Kafir language is considerably enriched by the 
free use of tropes and figures. Some of these are novel and 
peculiar, whilst others are more in accordance with Euro- 
pean usages. The following examples will afford a sufficient 
illustration. 



WORDS AND PHRASES. 


LITERAL MEANING. 


FIGURATIVE MEANING. 


bila 


ferment, boil 




perspire 


beta 


beat 




punish 


dhlelana 


to eat together 




to be on terms of intercourse 


fa 


to be dying 




to be sick 


Mala 


to sit 




dwell : live : continue 


ihlati 


bush 




refuge 


ingcala 


flying-ant 




uncommon dexterity 


umkonto 


assagai 




any thing valuable 


inncvvadi 


kind of bulbous 


plant 


book : glass 


inja 


dog 




a dependant 



PERSONIFICATION. 



71 



WORDS AND PHRASES. 

kolwa 

lila 

mnandl 

qauka 

sebenza 

ubuhlungu 

umsila 

zeka 

zidhla 

zonke 

akasiboni 

beka amehlo 

nikela indblebe 

ukuba namazinyo 

ukudbla uborai 

ukudlila umntu 

ukuhamba ngenkloko 

ukumqekeza inkloko 

ukunika ityala 

ukunuka umntu 



LITERAL MEANING. 

to be satisfied 

to cry 

sweet 

to be snapped asunder 

to work 

pain 

tail 

to take 

to eat oneself 

all 

he does not see us 

place the eyes 

give the ears 

to be with teeth 

to eat life 

to eat a person 

to walk by the head 

to break his head 

to give guilt 

to smell a person 



FIGURATIVE MEANING. 

to believe 

to lament : mourn 

pleased : agreeable 

to be quite dead 

to be busy 

grief 

court-messenger 

to marry 

to be proud 

abundant 

he is above noticing us 

look stedfastly 

listen attentively 

to have the tooth-ache 

to live 

to confiscate his property 

to go bareheaded 

to weary one 

to accuse or condemn 

to accuse one of witchcraft 



The substantive verb is generally used in simple com~ 
jiarisons, either expressed or understood. Thus, in descri- 
bing a greedy or avaricious man, the Kafirs say, iiyinncuka, 
he is a wolf; that is, he is like a wolf in the disposition 
referred to. So of a strong or hard-working man, they will 
say, uyinkabij he is an ox ; that is, he is as strong as an 
ox. 

30. The Kafirs are pretty free in the use of personified- 
tion. For instance, if they fail in lifting or breaking any 
thing, and the like, they transfer the inability from them- 
selves to it, and say, " It is not willing, " and not, " I can- 
not do it. " They will also personify words for the purpose 
of sarcasm or ridicule. This generally occurs in the course 
of debate, when the speaker fastens upon some particular 
word used by his opponent, and calls him by it ; as Mr, 
No, Mr. Nevertheless, and so on. 

31. With regard to enunciation, the Kafir language is 
soft and melodious ; possessing, at the same time, a pecu- 
liarly easy and agreeable flow, which seldom fails to attract 



7^ ENUNCIATION. 

the notice of the most casual listener. The only sounds 
which can be considered in any degree harsh, are the 
clicks ; but the preponderance is so great in favour of 
other characters, that their individual harshness is lost 
in the general smoothness of the whole. 



-. 



A GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



KAFIR LANGUAGE. 



Studium linguarum, in universum, in ipsis primordiis triste est et ingratum ; 
sed, primis difficultatibus labore improbo et ardore nobili perruptis, 
postea, — curaulatissime beamur. 

Valcken^erius. 



32. Language consists cf words, which are used as signs 
of our ideas, by universal consent. Grammar, accordingly, 
takes cognizance of words ; and treats of their several 
usages, in order to exhibit, in a methodical manner, the 
principles and rules which are deducible therefrom. 

Kafir grammar may be divided into three parts : the first 
referring to the component parts of words, as made up of 
letters, syllables, and sound : the second, to the different 
forms and properties which they possess, or may assume: 
and the third, to their construction and arrangement in a 
sentence or proposition. 51 



51 As the Kafir language, in the 
widest acceptation of the term, in- 
cludes several dialect-, it may be 
proper to remark, that the following 
grammar, though applicable to the 



Kafir branch in general, and in all 
its leading principles and usagps, to 
the whole of the Kafir family, is writ- 
ten, strictly speaking, in the dialect 
of the Amaxosa, or Kafirs proper. 



1 



74 



THE ALPHABET. 
PART I. 

THE COMPONENT PARTS OF WOPvDS. 



OE LETTERS. 

S3. The letters are twenty-six in number, and correspond 
in form, to the characters of the English and most other 
European tongues. The following table gives the sounds 
which they severally represent, as nearly as there can be 
found similar ones for the same character in the English 
language. A few examples are added for the purpose of 
exercise. 



Letters. 


Names- 


Powers. 


Examples. 


A, a 


a 


a i 


n father 


amatye, hamba. 


E, e 


e 


e 


there 


ewe, ende. 


I, i 


i 


i 


routine 


imiti, impi. 


0, o 








bone 


bona, zonda. 


U, u 


u 


u 


. rule 


ututu, umlungu. 


B, b 


ebe 


b 


. bud 


beta, ubomi. 


P, P 


epe 


P 


. put 


pupa, upondo. 


D, d 


ede 


d 


. dome 


duda, isidudu. 


T, t 


ete 


t 


ton 


tata, inteto. 


P> s 


ige 


g 


gone 


goba, igazi. 


K, k 


eke 


k 


. kill 


kapa, ikaka. 


y, v 


ive 


V 


. van 


vavanya, izivato. 


F, f 


efe 


f 


foot 


fefa, ufffe. 


Z, z 


ize 


z 


zone 


zala, izono. 


S, s 


ese 


s 


son 


sola, iseme. 


H, h 


he 


h 


. hard 


henda, ihilihili. 


L, 1 


ele 


1 


. love 


lala, isililo. 


M, m 


em 


m 


men 


mema, ummango. 


N, n 


en 


n 


noon 


nuka, innene. 


W, w 


we 


w 


wane 


wela, iliwa. 


Y, y 


y e 


y 


yoke 


yeka, umyezo. 


J, J 


je 


j 


.. jet 


jika, um-ji. 


C, c 


ci 






cela, isicici. 


Q, q 


qu 


No ( 


:orresponding 


qiqq, uqaqaqa. 


X, x 


xe 




sounds. 


xoxa, uxolo. 


R, r 


ru 






rora, elirara, 



VOWELS. 



75 



, 1. The sounds of the English c and q exist also in Kafir, and are repre- 
sented by * for the c soft, k for c hard, and lav for q. 

2. The sound of the English x is not found in Kafir. Neither is that of r 
a native sound, though commonly retained in foreign words. 52 

34. The Kafir alphabet, as exhibited in the foregoing 
table, consists of four kinds of letters; namely, vowels, 
consonants, clicks, and gutturals. 

1. The vowels are «, e, i, o, u. 

2. The consonants are b, p, d, t } g, /•, v, f, z, s, h, I, 
my n, w, ?/, j. 

3. The clicks are c, q, x, 

4. The gutturals are represented by r. 



VOWELS. 

35. The vowels are usually pronounced with great dis- 
tinctness. They preserve in all situations the same radical 
sound, the only variation being in the length or shortness 
of the act of enunciation. They are long m all accented 
syllables, and short in unaccented syllables. But the con- 
sonants m and n, often have the tendency of shortening the 
sound of a preceding vowel, even in accented syllables. 
This is particularly the case with the vowel *, though the 
same tendency is observable in connexion with the others, 
yet not so evidently in the case of a and e, and still less so 
in that of o and u. 

The long and short sounds of the Kafir vowels, may be 
illustrated by their comparison with the following corre- 
sponding long and short vowel sounds of the English lan- 
guage. The short o, however, would perhaps be better 
represented by a sound between the o of come, and the o of 



52 It is worthy of remark, that if a 
Kafir be given a word to pronounce 
with the sound of r in it, he will al- 
most invariably give it the sound of/, 
whilst, on the contrary, if he be given 
one which contains the sound of I, he 
will give it that of?-. Natives of other 
countries, also, in whose language 
the r is not found, have been known 
to act in precisely the same manner. 
In fact, as a writer in the Biblical 



Review observes, "the change oil 
and r is one of the most common in 
all languages. In Sanscrit itself many 
words are written indifferently with 
either I or r. Several instances of 
the interchange of these letters in the 
Latin language are given by Mr. 
Key," in his work entitled 'The Al- 
phabet,' " and it would even appear 
that originally there was no letter r 
in that language." Vol. 4. p. 17. 



76 



COALITION OF VOWELS. 



not; but the sound given is as near an approximation to 
the corresponding short sound of o ih bone, as the English 
language possesses. 

a long as a in father short as a in man. 

e long as e in there short as e in then. 

i long as ee in seen short as ee in been. 

o long as o in bone short as o in none. 

u long as oo in moon short as oo in wool. 

The vowels e and i, when final, are sometimes mute in the colloquial style, 
as in the words ihashe, inkosi, fyc, which are pronounced as though the final 
vowels were elided. Final i, when preceded by m, is occasionally omitted 
in the more formal style, and also in writing, as in the case of some forms of 
the first personal pronoun; thus, warn and leum are used for wami and kumi.53 

COMBINATION OF VOWELS. 

36. A combination of vowels for the formation of one sound, 
only occurs in the diphthongs ai and au. 

1. The former is pronounced like the English affirmative 
aye, and is only found in the final syllable of a word, as in 
the following examples ; — hat, tiduai, innqai, um-Qai } u- 
Ncapal, Sfc. 

2. The latter is pronounced like ou in ounce, and occurs 
in the words, gaula, hlaida, tsaida, nyauka, vpav, $c. 

But when these vowels come together in the process of composition, as in 
the case of some of the tenses of the verb, they are pronounced in separate 
syllables, or their combination is prevented by some rule. This is the case 
with the other vowels in every situation. 

COALITION OF VOWELS. 

37. A coalition of vowels takes place in the following 
instances : — 

1. The relative pronoun always coalesces with those forms 
of the verbal prefixes which consist of, or commence with, 
a vowel, unless prevented by rule 6, § 279. 



5^ Some have introduced these ab- 
breviated forms even in portions of 
sacred Scripture. But the propriety 
of this may well be questioned. In 
such circumstances it would seem 



more proper to employ the full form, 
as better comporting with the formal 
character of the word of God. The 
same remark will also apply to the 
use of mna for mina. 



ELISION OF VOWELS. 77 

a and a coalesce in a; as, aya for aaya. 

a and e . . a; as, afie for aebe. 

a and m . . a ; as, oya for a?«/a. 

e and £ . . e ; as, e&e for eifo. 

o and u .. o ; as, on°a for ounga. 

%, The verbal prefixes a and e coalesce with the initial 
vowel of vowel verbal roots. As : — 

ake for aake . . . . . . . . akile for eakile. 

enze for aenze enzile for eenzile. 

oyike for aoyike . . . . . . oyikile for eoyikile. 

S. The final « of the possessive and other prefixual par- 
ticles, coalesces with the initial vowel of the noun or other 
word to which they are prefixed. Thus : — 

a and a coalesce in a ; as, wamanzi for wa amanzi. 

a and e . . e ; as, yeli for ya -eli. 

a and i . . e ; as, vjengehobe for njenga-ihobe. 

a and o . . o ; as, bony ana for ba-onyana. 

a and u . . o ; as, ngomntu for nga-umntu.54: 

CONTRACTION OF VOWELS. 

38. A contraction of vowels sometimes takes place in the 
formation of certain tenses of the verb. Thus :— 

e and e are contracted into e; as, ubeieta for ube eteta. 
e and i . . £ ; as, z&i^/a for ibe iya. 

e and u . . « : as, ubuya for &&e w#a. 

ELISION OF VOWELS. 

39. An elision of vowels is of frequent occurrence; the 
initial vowel of the succeeding word, passing away before 
the final one of the preceding; or, the final vowel of the 
first word, before the initial vowel of the second. All the 
vowels suffer elision in either of these positions, though o 
and u less frequently than the others. 

40. Two words often coalesce together in one sound in 
consequence of the elision of a vowel. 

1. When the final vowel of a preceding word suffers 

54 Vowels are found to coalesce in 1 likewise in the Sanscrit. Lee's Heb. 
similar manner in Hebrew. So J Gram. p. 38. 



78 ■ '. CONSONANTS. 

elision, the consonant or consonants pass on to the initial 
vowel of the following word for the completion of a syllable. 
As, 

Hamb' uye ngapandhle Go outside. 

Zonk' izinto All things. 

Nants' iridhlela Here is the path. 

2. When the initial vowel of a succeeding word is elided, 
coalition can only take place when such vowel is followed 
by m or n, these being the only consonants which may com- 
bine with a preceding vowel according to § 57. As, 

Sikwenza 'mkulu We magnify thee. 

Umlomo 'mnye One mouth. 

Wonika 'nto nina What will he give t 

Inkliziyo *nnye One heart. 

MUTATION OF VOWELS. 

41. A change of one vowel into another, or into a combi- 
nation of letters, is of frequent occurrence in the process of 
inflection, as will be seen hereafter. The following muta- 
tions may be noticed here. 

1. A is sometimes changed into e simply for the sake of 
euphony ; more particularly before particles commencing 
with k and nj. Occasionally, also, it passes into w before 
another vowel. 

2. E is immutable, except in the inflected dative form of 
the noun. 

3. The vowels i, o, and u, when found before another 
vowel in the course of formation or inflection, are changed 
into their corresponding consonantal sounds, that of i being 
represented by y, and that of o or u } by w. 

The several instances in which these mutations occur, will be found in 
subsequent parts. 

CONSONANTS. 

42. The consonants preserve one uniform sound in every 
situation. None, moreover, are ever quiescent. 

1. W, and y, being simply vowel sounds hardened and 



COMBINATION OF CONSONANTS. 



79 



compressed into consonantal ones, may be termed semi- 
towels. 

i / is a compound consonant, representing the same 
sound as is expressed by the combination dzh. 

S. The remaining consonants can be arranged, according 
to their organic formation and particular character, as in the 
following table : — 





MUTES. 


SIBILANTS. 


ASPIRATE. 


LIQUID. 


NASALS 


Labials. 


b, p 


Vif 






m 


Dentals. 


d, t 


z, s 








Palatals. 


g, k 




i 






Linguals. 








; 


n 



4. The mutes and sibilants naturally fall into pairs, ac- 
cording as their emission, by the different organs, is more 
or less brisk. In this respect they may be divided into flat 
and sharp consonants. They correspond as follow : — 



Flat.— 
Sharp.- 



COMBINATION OF CONSONANTS. 



43. The consonants frequently combine with each other. 
The following list contains the more usual and simple com- 
binations, as well as the more rare and complex ones ; and, 
in connexion with the succeeding click and guttural combi- 
nations, will afford the learner an opportunity of practising 
on the different sounds of the-' language. 



dhl, as in the word dlilala. 



gvv, as in the word gweba. 



dhlw, 


dbhvengula. 


kl, 


inklaka. 


dw, 


dwalaza. 


klw, ' 


' inklwayelelo. 


dy, 


dyoba. 


kw, 


kwela. 


dyw, 


dyw aba. 


fw, 


fefwa. 


ts, 


tsala. 


zw, 


ilizwi. 


tsb, 


tsbona. 


sh, 


shush a. 


tsbw, 


tsbwentula. 


shw, 


shwila. 


tsw, 


tsvvina. 


sw, 


swela. 


tw, 


twala. 


hi, 


hlala. 


ty, 


tyala. 


hlw, 


hlwayela. 


tyw, 


tyw aba. 


hw, 


umhwahwalala. 



80 



COMBINATION OF CONSONANTS. 



l\y, as in the word ulwalwa. 



nt, as in the word isintu. 



mb, 


.. 


mba. 


nts, 


. ntsila. 


mp, 


.. 


mpompoza. 


ntsb, 


intshuntshe. 


md, 


.. 


mdaka. 


ntyw, 


ntywila. 


mty, 


• • 


mtyuba. 


ng, 


. ngena. 


mk, 




mka. 


ngw, 


ngwevu. 


mv, 


.. 


mvumvuzela. 


nk, 


nkenteza. 


mf, 


.. 


mfameka. 


nkl, 


nklakaza. 


raz, 


.. 


tyumza. 


nkw, 


nkwantya. 


ms, 


.. 


msulwa. 


nz, 


nzima. 


mhl, 


.. 


mlilope. 


nzw, 


. ubunzwana. 


ml, 


.. 


pumla. 


nw, 


innwele. 


mn, 


.. 


mnandi. 


ny, 


. nyula. 


mny, 


.. 


mnyama. 


nyw, 


linywa. 


nd,55 




ndulula. 


nj, 


njalo. 


ndhl, 


.. 


ilindble. 


yw, 


sbiywa. 


ndw, 


•• 


ndweba. 


JW| 


ijwaba. 


. Of the pr 


eceding combi 


nations, tsh, 


hi, kl, and did, 



1, 

would have been better represented by simple characters ; 
but as the Roman characters were adopted for the Kafir 
alphabet, a combination of these was considered preferable 
to the invention of new ones. In spelling words, it is usual 
to treat them as compound consonants, in preference to 
distributing them into their elementary parts. Thus tsha 
is spelt Ish-a, — not t-s-h-a ; dlda is spelt dhl-a, — not 
d-h-l-a, 8$c. 

i. Tsh is the corresponding sharp sound to dzh, and 
would therefore pair with; in the table § 42, 4. 

ii. Ill, hi, and did, are peculiar aspirate sounds, which 
may be thus classified. 

SOFT. SHARP. FLAT. 

Lingual hi 

Palato-lingual hi 

Dento-Iingual dhl 

Kl is for khl, and is tbe only combination wbich is not fully represented. 



55 In writing Kafir, it bas been 
a common custom to omit the initial 
n of particles and prefixes commen- 
cing with nd, ng, or nj, and also of 
nd and ng as euphonic letters. No 
reason, however, can be assigned for 



such an omission, and tbe sooner, 
therefore, this orthographical ano- 
maly ceases to occur, tbe better. The 
sound is universally acknowledged 
to be there, and why not then its 
representative 1 



MUTATION OF CONSONANTS. 81 

It never occurs as an initial in a verbal root, and where it is found as sucli 
in nominal roots, it is generally a substitute for hi. 

2. M, and A 7 , as initials in several of the above combi- 
nations, have chiefly the effect of giving a nasal sound to 
the following consonant or consonants with which they are 
used. 

OMISSION OP CONSONANTS. 

44. The initial consonant of a succeeding syllable is 
occasionally omitted, for the sake of euphony, when the 
preceding syllable commences with the same letter. Thus, 
hulawa is used for bulalwa, and bulewe for bulelwe. In a 
few instances the consonant of the preceding syllable is 
omitted, whilst that of the following one is retained : as, 
aako for akuko. See also § 154, 2, 

M, and N, when initial in a verbal or other root, with 
simply a nasal force, are omitted after prefixes terminating 
in the same letter. See § 85. 

MUTATION OF CONSONANTS. 

45. A change of consonants sometimes takes place hi the 
process of inflection, and occasionally in other instances, 
partly on account of incompatibility, and partly for the 
promotion of euphony. 

1. N%, in the verbal roots enza and enziva, and their seve- 
ral tensual derivatives, is usually changed into nj, when 
those roots are immediately followed by a particle commen- 
cing with nj. The final a, moreover, of enza, is changed 
into e in the same circumstances. Thus, yenje njalo for 
yenza njalo ; bending enjang a nje for bendingenzanga nje ; 
ungcnjwa njalo for ungenzwa njalo ; siya Jcwenje njanina 
for sty a kwenza njanina ; nenjwe njalo for nenzwe njalo; 

2. S, as initial in verbal or other roots, whether single 
or in combination with other consonants, changes into ts, 
when preceded by the nominal prefix in, or issin, in the 
course of derivation. As, intsapo from usapo ; imntsu from 



82 CLICKS. 

ulusu; intshumayelo from shumaycla ; intswelo from swela ; 
intshwabaniso from shivabanisa ; $c. 

3. HI, is changed into kl, when preceded by the nomin- 
al prefix in, or izin, or the epenthetic letter n, under the 
same circumstances. As, inklalo from Mala; inklungu from 
uhlungu ; esinkle from Afe ; $c. 

4. The following mutations occur in the inflection of 
nominal, adjectival, and verbal roots ; none of them, how- 
ever, affecting a monosyllable, or the initial syllable of a 
polysyllable : — 

i. B changes into ty : but in verbal inflections for the 
formation of the passive voice, if b be followed by i or o, 
it changes into j. This is usually the case, likewise, when 
it is followed by u. 

ii. P is changed into tsh. 

iii. M changes into ny : but in verbal inflections for the 
formation of the passive voice, if m be followed by k, % 9 s, 
or /, it is changed into nyu. 

This variation, however, is only an apparent one. The vowel u is, in 
fact, no part of the inflection, but belongs to the root, which had previously 
been in a state of contraction. See § 59, 2. 

iv. Mb changes into nj. 

v. Mp is changed into nlsh. 

Examples of these consonantal changes will be given under the different 
inflections. 

CLICKS. 

48. The clicks are peculiar sounds which can only be 
acquired from a native, or from one who has known the 
language from his youth. They are classified according to 
the manner in which they are enunciated. 

C is the dental click, its sound being emitted by placing 
the tongue against the front teeth. 

Q is the palatal click, being pronounced by pressing the 
tongue against the roof of the mouth. 

X is the lateral click, being articulated by compressing 
the tongue and side teeth together. 



GUTTURALS. 



83 



COMBINATION OF CLICKS AND CONSONANTS. 

47. The clicks combine with three of the consonants in 
the following manner : — 



gc, as 


tn ^e word 


gcina. 


nc, as in the 


Mord ncama. 


gcvv, 




gcwayela. 


new, 


ncAaba. 


gq> 




gqala. 


nq, 


nqumla. 


gq w > 




gqwagqwa. 


nqw, 


nqwalela. 


g x » 




gxota. 


nx, 


nxama. 


gxw, 




gxwala. 


nxw, 


nx.venia. 


ngc, 




ngcatsha* 


cw, 


ewe la. 


ngcw, 




ngcwalisa. 


qw, 


qwesha. 


n gq» 




ngqonga. 


xw, 


xwebula. 


ngx, 


.. 


ngxola. 







Of the above combinations, those in which the consonants 
precede the click, are in fact only other forms of the clicks 
themselves, and may with them be thus arranged and (lis- 



inguished : — 












SOFT. 


HARD. 


NASAL-SOFT. 


NASAL-HARD. 


Dental. 


c 


gc 


nc 


ngc 


Palatal. 


1 


gq 


nq 


ngq 


Lateral. 


X 


g* 


nx 


ngx 



MUTATION OF CLICKS. 



48. A change of the soft clicks into their corresponding 
hard ones, occurs in the derivation of nouns with the in 
prefix, from verbal and other roots which commence with 
c, q, or x. Thus, ingcelo from cela ; ingcango from ma- 
ngo ; ingqalo from qala ; ingxelo from xela ; $c. 



GUTTURALS. 



49. There are two guttural sounds represented by the 
letter r. The one is the soft guttural, which corresponds 
to the Dutch g, as in the word gemeente, and occurs in the 
Kafir words rola, razula, ranuJca, 8cc: and the other is the 
deep guttural, which has no corresponding sound in any of 
the European tongues. It is peculiarly deep-toned, and 
rather harsh, and occurs in the words iratshi, vara, and a 
few others. 



84 



COMPATIBLE LETTERS. 



Besides the fore-mentioned sounds, the letter r also represents that of the 
same character in the English language. But as this occurs only in words 
of foreign derivation, no difficulty will he experienced. A separate cha- 
racter, however, either for the guttural sounds, or the foreign sound, would 
certainly be an improvement, and to the natives especially, a matter of 
convenience. 

COMBINATION OF GUTTURALS AND CONSONANTS. 

50. The soft guttural is found in two combinations as 
follow :~— 

rw, as in the word rwisha. 
ry, , . amaryuryu. 

RADICAL LETTERS. 

51. The consonants r and/, the clicks, and the deep gut- 
tural, are termed radical letters, as they are only found in 
the roots of words. The remaining letters are called serviles, 
as they are used in the formation and inflection of words, as 
well as in their roots. 

It may be observed, that h only occurs as a servile in the inflection 
tsh and the affix she, and t in the inflections tsh and ty. Pis only thus found 
in the prefix pa, and r soft in the affix ra. 

COMPATIBLE LETTERS. 

52. Letters are termed compatible, or incompatible, as 
they can, or cannot, associate with others in the same sylla- 
ble. The following tabular view will show the usages of 
the Kafir letters in this particular. 



ETTERS. 




PRECEDED BY 


FOLLOWED BY 


b 


m 






p 


m 






d 


m, 


and n 


hi, w. and y 


t 


m, 


and n 


s, w, and y 


g 


n 




w 


k 


m, 


and n 


1 {for hi), and w 


V 


m 






f 


m 




w 


z 


m, 


and n 


w 


a 


t, 


and m 


h, and w 



EPENTHETIC LETTERS. 



85 



LETTERS. 




PRECEDED 


BY 








FOLLOWED BY 


h 


s 


and m 












1 3 and w 

w [1, and n 


m 
















b, p, d, t, k, v, f, z, s, hi, 


n 


m 














d, t, g, k, z, w, y, j, kl, dhl, 


w 


d, 


t, g, k, f, 


z, s 


, h, 


1, 


n 


y, 


[and tsh 




j> 


c, q, x, r, hi. 


kl, 


dhl, 


and 


tsh 




y 


d, 


t, n, and r 












w 


j 


n 














w 


c 


& 


and n 












w 


q 


ft 


and n 












W 


X 


ffj 


and d 












w 


r 
















w, and y 


hi 


d, 


k, and m 












w 


kl 


n 














w 


dhl 


n 














w 


tsh 


n 














w 



1. B, p, v, and iv, are incompatible so far as a following 
consonant is concerned ; ???, and r, so far as a preceding 
consonant is concerned. The remaining letters are compat- 
ible in both ways, but in most instances to a very limited 
extent. F appears to be compatible with ic, only in the 
passive voice of verbs. 

2. The vowels are incompatible with each other, except 
in the case of the diphthongs ai and an. 5 ® 

EPENTHETIC LETTERS. 



53. The letters s, I, m, and n s are termed epenthetic, 
when they are found in situations where they must be ac- 
counted for, on principles of euphony rather than on those 
of analogy. 

1. $ k prefixed to the inflected form of nouns, and to 
such particles as commence with the vowel e, when these 



56 It would he well, if those who 
have to introduce words of foreign 
extraction into the Kafir language, 
were to depart as little as possible 
from the native custom, as exempli- 
fied in the above section. Such words 
as baptizcsha, igospeli, ttmpostile, i- Yip- 
ti, umpatriarke, ubroeder, ioostc, ubu- 



majesty, ugceste, imuur, /ryngaard, fyc. } 
should never be admitted into use, 
being altogether contrary to the na- 
ture and usage of the language. Seve- 
ral of them, indeed, are wholly unne- 
cessary, as Kafir words may be found 
which express with sufficient clear- 
ness the same ideas, See §§57 and 5S. 



86 EUPHONIC LETTERS. 

are preceded by the substantive verb, or by the adverb kwa, 
or by one of the prefixes. As, usendhlwini ; kwa sekuqale- 
Jceni; ngasese ; ubusi basendhle ; $-c. 

2. L is used with the particles apa and apo, and some- 
times with oko, under the same circumstances. As baXapa; 
kwa \apo ; naXoko ; 8$c. 

L is also employed in the formation of some of the forms 
of the demonstrative pronouns. See § 162. 

3. M and n are used with some of the verbal prefixes, be- 
fore the roots of certain adjectives, according to §§135 — 
136. They are also occasionally found between the roots 
and prefixes of nouns, and in a few other instances. 

EUPHONIC LETTEKS. 

54. The letters a, i, u, ba, bu, ku, li, lu, si, and %i, for 
the third person ; u and ni, for the second person ; and ndi 
and si, for the first person ; are termed euphonic letters. 
They are thus denominated, from the prominent part which 
they perform in the working of the principle called, the 
Euphonic concord, as it is by their means, in their different 
combinations and uses, that a regular and harmonious al- 
literation is sustained throughout the various grammatical 
formations of the language. These letters vary in form, 
according as they, are used before vowels or consonants. 
When used before vowels, the general rule is that the con- 
sonantal forms drop their final vowel, and that the vowel 
forms pass into their consonantal sounds. When used before 
consonants, no variation occurs in the consonantal forms, 
but the vowel forms usually prefix their corresponding con- 
sonant. In order, therefore, to their systematic considera- 
tion, it will be more convenient to treat of them, as divided 
into two sets or classes. 

1. The euphonic letters of the third person, namely, a, 
b, k, I, s, w, y, and %, before vowels ; and ba, bu, ku, li, 
lu, si, wa, wu, yi, and zi, before consonants ; are embodied 
in the nominal prefixes, and derived from them. (Compare 
Euphonic letters in tabular view § 304.) 



EUPHONIC LETTERS. 87 

i. Those which are used before vowels, are the initial 
vowel of the monosyllabic prefixes ; and the initial consonant 
of the final syllable of the polysyllabic prefixes, except when 
this consonant is m, in which case the succeeding vowel is 
taken. 

The vowel forms are changed into their corresponding consonants according 
to § 41. But a only observes this rule in the formation of the possessive par- 
ticle wa, when used for a in composition, and in that of the negative verbal 
prefix awa, second species, plural, and before corresponding particles after 
the auxiliary nga. In other circumstances, its place is supplied as below (§ 55, 
1), or it coalesces with the initial vowel of the word before which it is used, 
as in the case of the adjective onke, and the adverbs edwa and odwa. If the 
substantive verb, however, precede onke, edwa, or odwa, a changes into w ; as 
awonke (for aaonke) awedwa (for aaedwa). 

ii. Those which are used before consonants are derived 
in a similar manner, the vowel of the monosyllabic prefixes 
taking its corresponding consonant ; and the consonant of 
the polysyllabic prefixes its succeeding vowel, except in the 
case of the above mentioned wz/which is rejected as a eupho- 
nic letter, and the succeeding vowel used in its place, and 
this, accordingly, takes its corresponding consonant. 

Lu and kn are occasionally used before vowels, in which case their final u 
is changed into w. See §§ 143 and 303. 

2. The euphonic letters correspond in form and use, to 
the several prefixes from which they are thus derived. This 
correspondency is shown in § 98. 

3. They are used in the following different ways : — 
i. In forming the possessive particles. 

ii. In forming the causal form of nouns and pronouns. 

iii. In forming the indefinite adjectives onke and mbi. 

iv. In forming the pronominal interrogative particle pina. 

v. In forming the demonstrative adverbs. 

vi. Prefixed to the particle ka, in the formation of the 
second possessive form of nouns. 

vii. Prefixed to the adverbs edwa and odwa. 

viii. Sometimes prefixed to the vowel forms of the verbal 
prefixes, after the negative a, and the auxiliaries ma and 



88 EUPHONIC LETTERS. 

ix. Usually prefixed to nouns and pronouns after the sub- 
stantive verb, and the verbial as I. 

These several usages of the euphonic letters are all illustrated and explained 
in subsequent parts. 

55. Substitutes for some of the preceding euphonic letters, 
in certain situations, are found in ng, Jc 3 and y, before vow- 
els ; and in nga, and ngu, before consonants. 

1. Ng, and ngu, are used for w, and ivu, the singular 
euphonic letters of the first and sixth species; ng, and nga, 
for a, and wa, the plural euphonic letters of the second species ; 
and ng, and nga, for b, and ba, the plural euphonic letters 
of the first species; in the following instances : 

i. Before nouns and pronouns after the substantive verb, 
and verbial asi. 

ii. In the formation of the causal form of nouns and pro- 
nouns. 

iii. In the formation of the demonstrative adverbs. But 
nku is used for ngu, first species, singular. 

B, the plural euphonic letter of the first species, is sometimes retained, as 
in the following examples ; — 



Ziyamiwa ftabantu ; 

Udumo lwabantwana lu&oyise 



They are inhabited by people. 

The glory of children are their fathers. 



2. K\s used instead of the euphonic letter w, or rather 
its substitute ng, in negative verbal prefixes of the third 
person, first species, singular, and generally in those of the 
second species, plural ; as, oka, aJcange. It is also some- 
times inserted before the affirmative and negative prefixes 
of the third person singular, first species, and plural, second 
species, of the present, Subjunctive, when this is in compo- 
sition with the auxiliary ma, 

3. Y is used for w, first species, singular, in the formation 
of the adverb yedwa. Also before corresponding participles 
after the auxiliary nga. 

The above substitutes are used partly for the sake of euphony, and partly 
for tbe sake of precision. This will be sufficiently evident from a compa- 
rison of a few forms in which they occur, and to which reference can be 
easily made. 



OF SYLLABLES. 89 

56. The euphonic letters of the first and second persons, 
namely, nd, s, iv, and n, before vowels; and ndi, si, u, and 
ni, before consonants ; are primitives. Nd, and ndl, corres- 
pond to the first person singular ; and s, and si, to the first 
person plural. IV, and u, correspond to the second person 
singular; and n, and ni, to the second person plural. They 
are used in the following ways: — 

1. As verbal prefixes and medials of the first and second 
persons. 

But ku is used for u, in the case of the medial, second person, singular. 

2. In forming personal pronouns of the first and second 
persons. 

In this instance their place is partly supplied by substitutes, mi being used 
for ndi, and ti for si. 

3. In forming the causal form of personal pronouns of the 
first and second persons. 

4. In forming the first and second persons of the indefi- 
nite adjective onke. 

5. Prefixed to the adverbs echva and odwa, 

6. TV is sometimes prefixed to the following verbal prefix, 
after the negative a, and the auxiliaries ma and nga. 

But after the negative a, the place of w is always supplied by the substitute 
/r, as, al-u, akunge. 

7. Usually prefixed to personal pronouns of the first and 
second persons, after the substantive verb, and the verbial 
a si. 

Butngu is used as the substitute for u, in the third and last of the preceding 
usages. 

OF SYLLABLES. 

57. The construction of Kafir syllables is simple and uni- 
form. The rule is, that every syllable ends in a vowel ; the 
only exceptions being, that the consonants m and n are 
sometimes found as finals. This, however, rarely occurs but 
in a few y of the nominal prefixes. In other cases, the m and 

M 



90 



OF SYLLABLES. 



n are initials in the following syllable, unless the succeeding 
letter be incompatible with them, or unless derivation should 
show to the contrary. The following examples will serve as 
an illustration of the proper division of words where m or n 
occurs, either as final in one syllable, or initial in the next, 
these being the only words in which any difficulty, with re- 
gard to the right method of spelling, can be experienced: — ■ 
ha-mba, lam-va, nqa-mla. om-bi, wu-mbi, a-ba-ntu, in-JcO' 
si, i-ma-li, hn-a-la-io, umbo-na, um-oj'i, a-ndin°e--ye, i- 
mi-nga, en-Lulu, a-wa-nkla, i~nya-te-la s i-ngi-ni-ngi-ni, 
in-gca-tsJia.W 

58. The following rules refer to the derivation of foreign 
Words, and are in accordance with §§ 52, and 57. 

1. Every syllable should terminate in a vowel : as, bapi- 
tizes/ia, from baptize ; igolide, from gold ; inkamela, from 
camel; ibere, from bear; $c. 



57 The consonants m and n have 
occasioned considerable confusion in 
Kafir orthography. As they may oc- 
cur not only as initial letters, but ;:lso 
as final ones, they are sometimes 
found in only one, and at other times 
in both, of these situ, lions, in two 
successive syllables of the same word. 
Attention, therefore, both to the form 
of the prefix, and to that of the root, 
will be necessary to enable the writer 
to spell correctly. Formerly it ap- 
pears to have been the custom, to write 
these consonants double in almost ev- 
ery instance in which they occurred, 
and thus they were sometimes insert- 
ed where analogy did not require them. 
Latterly the opposite extreme has 
been fallen into, and conse'juer.tly 
they are never written double at all. 
By this means several roots are bereft 
of their initial consonant, or their 
prefixes, of their final one, which, in 
some cases, is sufficient to wholly alter 
the meaning of the word intended, 
or, on the contrary, to deprive it of 
all meaning whatever. The medium 
mode will be found the most correct 
one, namely, to write m and n double, 
when they occur both as the final let- 
ter of a prefix, and the initial letter 
of a following root, except in the in- 
stances noted § 85, and single in all 



other cases. Accordingly, inyama 
should be written innyamax hnvele t 
innwele ; inqwelo, imiqwelo ; ngenxn, 
ngennxa ; umango, vmmango ; hnini, im- 
mini; umopu, ummopu; fyc.j the con- 
sonants m and ?> being in these words 
essential and integral parts both of 
the prefix and the root. On the other 
hand, imazi, imali, umovgami, umalct, 
umenzi, inqina, inyatela, inani, §c. ; 
are properly written with a single m 
or ?:, as in all these examples cither 
the initial vowel alone is the prefix, 
andthe?ra or n the initial consonant 
of the root ; or the prefix ends in m or 
??, and the following vowel commences 
the root. 

In a few words, also, it has been 
the custom to omit n, when initial in 
a root, after prefixes terminating in 
m, as in the examples, um!u, umtira- 
no, wnga, umtakwetu; which should 
be written, umntu, umhtwana, umnga, 
umnta/cwetu. 

The semivowels w and y, again, 
have been occasionally inserted or 
omitted unnecessarily. In such words 
for instance as awu, upairu, hoyi, hayi, 
invqayi, the w and y are unwarranted 
either by sound or analogy, and should 
not therefore be inserted. On the 
contrary, the y of enkliziyweni shouM 
not be omitted. 



OF SYLLABLES. 9i 

But initial and medial syllables may sometimes end in m, 
or n, though few cases will occur in which they may not be 
regarded as commencing the following syllable : as, itempile, 
from temple; i-Korinte, from Corinth; §c. 

2. Incompatible consonants ought to be separated by a 
vowel: as, umperisite, from priest; Her He, from kerk ; §c. 

S. Consonants may be changed or omitted, either for 
the sake of euphony, or to prevent the undue length of 
a word : as, ivike from week ; inalite, from naalct •; u-Apo- 
lo'si, from Apollos; umposile, from apostle ; u-Kiripusi % 
from Crispus; intolongo, from trunk; isikolo from school; 
isi-tene, from steen ; u-Maldzedehi, from Melchizedeh ; §c. 

4. Vowels, likewise, may be sometimes conveniently 
changed or omitted: as, isugile, from sugar; i-Jipete, from 
Egypt ; ama-Ngesi, from English ; i-ngelosi, from the Greek 
for angel ; u Siraijeli, from Israel; uSamyali, from Sam- 
uel; fyc. 

5. W, and Y, may sometimes be inserted between two vow- 
els : as, u-Nowa, from Noah ; iyasine, from assijn ; i-Pe- 
resiya, from Persia ; &c. 

Whenever cither i or u is found as the initial letter of a foreign word, it 
would be better to observe this or the preceding rule, as neither of these vow- 
els appear to be acknowledged as initials of a root in native usage : as, u-Yl- 
saya, from Isaiah; iyure, fromuur; u-Shimayeli, from Ishmael: &c. 

6. Where it is necessary to introduce both' a verb and 
noun from a foreign language, the former should be derived 
from the foreign source, and the latter from the new deriva- 
tive : as, varasha, from wachten, but ivarasho, from varasha, 
according to § 76, Second Species ; batalosha, from bataalen, 
but ibaialo, from batalosha, according to § 77, 3 ; &c. 

7. The foreign sound of r having been admitted into the 
language, some rule appears desirable as to its compatibility, 
or incompatibility, with the other consonants. There seems 
to be no objection to its being considered compatible with 
either mutes or sibilants, when any of these precede it in the 
same syllable, except where the insertion of a vowel would 
render the word more euphonic, or more emphatic. Thus, 
u-Abrahame, isal:ramente } umproJ}ie y u-Petrosi } §c. la 



02 CONTRACTION OF SYLLABLES. 

all other cases, it would perhaps be better to consider it in- 
compatible. 

8. As it is an established usage in all Kafir words, that 
every letter is pronounced in the same manner in every 
situation, it appears the wiser course to observe the same 
usage in foreign words. The confusion which prevails in 
our own language, in consequence of the same letter having 
several different sounds, furnishes a sufficient reason against 
introducing a similar system into this. Sounds, accordingly, 
rather than characters, should regulate the Kafir orthogra- 
phy of foreign words. Thus, um-Sadusi, from Sadducee ; 
isakramente, from sacrament ; u-Akwila, from Aquila; u~ 
Trifosa, from Tryphosa ; iremente, from gemeente ; %c. 

In deriving words from Greek and Hebrew sources, as will sometimes be 
requisite in the translation of the Scriptures, it should be borne in mind thar> 
as in the Kafir, so in those languages, words generally consist of two parts, 
the one radical, and the other non-radical. Consequently, there is no neces- 
sity that this latter part should be incorporated in the root, as its place is. 
sufficiently supplied by the prefix, which corresponds in some sort to it. 

CONTRACTION OF SYLLABLES. 

59. A contraction of two or more syllables into one, some- 
times takes place. 

1. Aya, iya, and irya, are contracted into o : as, apo, 
from apaya ; elo, from eliya ; nanko, from nankuya* 

In this way the several forms of the present tense of the auxiliary ya, be- 
come contracted into ndo, bo, lo, fyc, when used iti the formation of the first 
future tense. 

i. But the vowel forms of the verbal prefixes, with the exception of a, do 
not suffer contraction, but are changed into their corresponding consonants 
before the o: as, ivo, from nya; yo from iya. 

ii. Those forms, also, which belong to the fifth species, singular, or to the 
eighth species, retain the u of the full form, the ya alone being changed into 
e, as in the preceding instances : thus, luya is changed into Iwo ; and leuya 
into lewo. Occasionally, however, Ituya is contracted into ho. 

2. Two syllables are sometimes contracted into one, by 
the omission of a letter : as, mna, for mina ; nqamka, for 
nqamuka ; pumla 3 for pumula ; qauka, for qapttka ; §e. 

"Where m» is found preceding Jc, z, s t or I, in tlie same syllabic, it will gen- 



OF SOUND. 93 

erally be the case, that a contraction has taken place by the omission of the 
vowel u. 

60. A more frequent mode of contraction, though a more 
arbitrary one, takes place in the formation of some com- 
pound words. The following examples will be a sufficient 
illustration : — ■ 

Umnbriyo, its proprietor ; for umnini wayo. 
"Umnomzctu, master of our place ; for umn'un womzx wetu. 
Umntwanam, my child ; for umntwana wanii. 
Umntakwetu, our cousin ; for umntwana. vtakivetu. 
Umnakwetu, our brother ; for mnninawe waJcicetu. 
Umntakanyoho, cousin ; for umntwana kanyoko. 
Untka-Pato, Pato's wife ; for umfazi ka-Pato. 
Ingubake, his garment ; for ingubo yake. 
Indodake, her husband ; for ingubo yake. 

Other forms of contraction are also used, as in some of the 
nominal prefixes, and in other instances, which are noticed 
hereafter. 

ELISIOX OF SYLLABLES. 

61. A syllable is sometimes elided in the process of deriva- 
tion and composition. Final syllables suffer elision more fre- 
quently than initial ones. See §§ 77, 3; 87, 2, i; 91 ; and 172, 
1. Medial syllables, also, are occasionally elided: thus, 
ngoba is sometimes heard for ngolcuba, suba for sukuba, &c 

PROTHETIC AXD PAEAGOGIC SYLLABLES. 

62. Yi is found as a prothetic syllable before the roots of 
Irregular verbs, in the formation of their imperative mood. 

63. Si is used as a paragogic syllable to some of the pre- 
fixes of Irregular verbs. Na, likewise, is occasionally affixed 
to w r ords in a merely paragogic sense ; as, ngakana/2tf ; uyabo- 
n&na ; &c. 

OF SOUND. 

61. The sound of the word, as composed of syllables and 
letters, chiefly depends upon the tone or accent, by which 



94 ACCENTUATION. 

they are united and held together as one external and intel- 
ligible whole. 

ACCENTUATION. 

65. The principal tone, which may he here designated 
by the grave accent, rests on the penultimate syllable of 
every polysyllabic word. 

1. But if a word be followed by another which is a monosyllable, 
the accent passes on to the ultimate : as, hamba Jce ; ivcnje nje ; ica- 
Jiambaze; Sfc. 

In some cases, however, the accent remains with the penultimate : 
as, sulca bo ; kube le ; Sfc. 

2. If a word be put in composition with a particle, or with ano- 
ther word, the accent passes on to the penultimate of the compound: 
as, int alcana ; otandvweyo ; JcwdbaJco ; indhliVifa ; iimlimandhlela ; 
isimungunyigan ; Sfc. 

3. The elision of a syllable or part of a syllable, whether initial 
or final in a word, will also affect the accent : — 

i. If the word be a dissyllable, its accent is lost, and that of the 
preceding word passes on from the penultimate to the ultimate : as, 
innyama'nnye; Icungahlulwa'mntu ; utetani; Sfc. 

ii. If the word consist of three or more syllables, the elision of 
the final one alone can disturb the seat of the accent, causing it to 
recede to the preceding syllable, which forms the penultimate of 
the word in its contracted state : as, nlni for ninina ; ngani for nga- 
nina ; nguwwpi for nguvcujnna ; Sfc. 

4. Some words with monosyllabic roots have the accent on the 
ultimate : as, uma ; hulb ; njengale ; Sfc. 

This is always the case where the monosyllabic root includes a 
diphthong, and hence, in deliberate speaking, diphthongs almost 
sound as if divided into their component parts : as, upau; u-Ncapai; 
unomyai ; Sfc. 

5. A few words have the accent on the antepenultimate : as, u- 
kaba, nbkiiba, ngbkuba, Sfc, when used as conjunctions ; and the 
verbial sklcuba. 

66. Besides the principal tone, there is likewise a fore- 
tone, an accent of a lighter nature, which is heard in words 
of three or more syllables, and may be here notified by the 
acute accent. 

1. It is heard in all polysyllabic prefixes, and in monosyllabic ones 
before roots of three syllables : as ; ubutataka ; umsebenzi ; Sfc. 



ACCENTUATION. 95 

2. It is also generally heard in those syllables which, through 
composition or other circumstances, have lost the principal tone : as, 
umteteleli; inJcosikazi ; hlanganiselana ; intakana ; Sfc. 

3. The relative pronoun receives this accent, whether it occur at 
the beginning, or in the middle, of a word: as, okulungileyo ; ngo- 
ivesliumi ; njengowake ; ezizezomlilaba ; Sfc. 

4. The auxiliary verbs, also, usually take this lighter accent, the 
other passing on to the verbal root : as, ndibe nditeta ; ncliya Jcuteta; 
ndibe ndiya fcuteta ; ndinga ndibe nditeta ; Sfc. 

i. When the auxiliary verbs are used in their contracted forms, 
the accent rests on the remaining vowel : as, henditeta ; ubuteta ; 
ngenditeta; ngaeteta; Sfc. 

ii. In some cases the tone appears to rest upon the ultimate of 
auxiliary verbs, rather than upon the penultimate : as, angd yesazi; 
singe sitetlle ; Sfc. But any variation of this kind will readily be dis- 
tinguished in the course of practice. 

5. This accent, likewise, rather than the principal tone, is used 
in connexion Avith some of the Idiomatic verbs, when found in. com- 
position with a following verb through contraction : as, Jcesitete ; 
Jc&wdbbna; basebetmna; se'ndiyalcuteta ; Sfc. 

6. Monosyllables may be considered as receiving this secondary 
accent, inasmuch as they are pronounced more forcibly than the un- 
accented syllables of polysyllabic words. 

67. The sound of every word will also be more or less 
influenced, by the general tone of the full proposition or 
period in which it forms a part. In reference to this ora- 
torical accent, it may be sufficient to observe, that in Kafir 
oratory the voice often commences at the highest pitch, and 
gradually descends in a kind of revolving manner, to the 
lowest. Where this is the case, therefore, the word will 
be enunciated in a higher or lower key, according to its rel- 
ative position in the falling inflection. In other circumstan- 
ces, nothing appears so peculiar as to call for remark. 

68. In addition to the accent, some words are further 
distinguished by a peculiar intonation given to them in the 
act of enunciation. This, however, is only observable in 
those words which are similar in form, but not in sense. 
Thus itanga, hlanza, umkombe, §c. , express two or three 
different ideas, according to the particular mode of their 
pronunciation. 



96 VERSIFICATION. 

G9. In a few other words, again, there is a slight aspira- 
tion heard with one of their letters, which, in some cases, 
serves to distinguish them from others having the same form, 
but a different signification. This aspiration is chiefly found 
in connexion with the consonants b and k, and the clicks 
q and x, causing the following vowel to receive a gentle 
breathing in the act of enunciation. The following are exam- 
ples : — bet, to steal ; bala, to write ; ukuko, a mat ; Jcubeka, 
to stumble; quba, to drive; nqina, to testify; xela, to slaugh- 
ter ; xuma, to leap. 

QUANTITY. 

TO. The quantity of words is regulated by the accent. 

1. Accented syllables are long, though the length varies 
as they receive the principal tone, or the foretone. 

2. Unaccented syllables are short. 

VERSIFICATION. 

71. The harmony of Kafir verse is dependent upon the 
regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables at 
certain intervals. The foretone, however, is sometimes 
passed over for the sake of metre. In other words, the syl- 
lable upon which this secondary accent rests, is treated as 
common, being regarded in some cases as long, and in others, 
as short. To make rhyme, there should be a correspondency 
between the last two syllables of one verse, and the last two 
of another. From the situation of the accent the language 
only appears favourable to two kinds of verse, — the Trochaic 
and the Amphibrachic. Most of the other kinds, indeed, 
with the exception of the Iambic, are scarcely formable to 
the extent of a single foot. The following couplets will serve 
for illustration : — - 

Trochaic Tixo, ngobubele bako, 

Usipile izwi lako. 

Ampl: ibrachic Uyeza ! uyeza ! um-Gwebi omkulu, 

Abantu bobona iu-K6si yezulu. 



PUNCTUATION. 1)7 

Iambic Catalectic Izono zam ndoyeka, 

Adipose pambi kwako. 

Amphihrachic-Trocliaic. . .Kumbula u-Tixo wako, 
Odal' abantu bonke. 

PUNCTUATION. 

72. The marks denoting the various kinds and degrees of 
the pause, are the same as those which are employed in all 
other languages where the same characters are used. 

1. The note of interrogation is accompanied by the parti- 
cle na, either alone or in composition. See § 3G6. 

2. The hyphen, in addition to its usual use in some com- 
pound words, is inserted between the prefix and root of those 
nouns which are the names of persons, places, sects, fyc, 
the latter commencing with a capital letter : as, u-Kama, i- 
Rini, um-Sadusi, i-Ngesi, in-Kosi, um-Ensi, $-c. 58 

In the vocative form of such nouns, the hyphen is omitted after monosylla- 
bic prefixes, the final m and n of the prefixes vm, im, and in, coalescing in 
one syllable with the initial vowel or consonant of the root: Thus : — Kama, 
Msadusi, Nkosi, Menzi, SfC 

o. The apostrophe is regularly used where the final letter 
of a word is elided. But its use is frequently dispensed with, 
when intended to notify the elision of an initial letter or syl- 
lable, unless precision should seem to require it. 

4. The diaeresis is not employed, as the rule is, that all 
vowels which happen to come together, are pronounced in 
separate syllables, except the combinations ai and au when 
found in the roots of words. § 06. 



58 Great inconsistency has hitherto ( preceding methods has been usually 

prevailed on this point. In some cases, adopted, and tins accords with the rule 

the initial letter of the root is written given above, which possesses all the 

with the capital letter, as um-Dali, urn- \ sanction of regularity and uniformity, 



Gwehi, Sfc. : in other case*, the final 
letter of the prefix is selected, as i- Nko- 
si, u-Mahluli, SfC. : and in others, a- 
gain, the second letter of the root, as 
aman-Gesi. It is observable, however, 
that this confusion rarely occurs, ex- 
cept in connexion with the prefixes urn 
and in. With all others, the first of the 



whilst it prevents the very objection- 
able anomaly of subdividing syllables. 
Either of the other modes, in fat, is 
clearly inadmissible. For whether the 
root, or the prefix, be selected for the 
exhibition of the capital letter, the ini- 
tial one alone, in either ease, has any 
claim to be so employed* 



98 DIVrSION OF WORDS.— NOUNS. 

PART II. 

THE FORMS AND PROPERTIES OF WORDS. 



73. Kafir words maybe conveniently arranged under jive 
principal divisions, usually termed parts of speech, namely, 
Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, and Particles. 

OF THE NOUNS. 



74. Nouns are distinguished by inseparable prefixes. 
These are seventeen in number, as follow ; — aba, ama, i, 
Hi, im, imi, in, isi, izi, izim, ixin, o, u, ubu, uku, ulu, and 
um. Some of these, however, as is shown hereafter, are 
mere variations or contractions of others. 

1. Hi, Isi, U, Ulu, and Um, are singular prefixes. 

2. Aba, Ama, Imi, Izi, Izim, Izin, and O, are plural prefixes. 

3. I, Im, and In, are in some cases singular prefixes, and in 
others p Iv/ral. 

4. Ubu, and Uku, have no distinction of number. 

The above prefixes are the themes of almost all others, and constitute, there- 
fore, a very important part of the external language. 

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

75. Nouns are distributed, according to their singular 
prefixes, into eight species.^ 

1. The first species includes those nouns of the personal 
gender, which have um or u for their singular prefix. 

Tli ere are some neuter nouns with the prefix k, which must be classed un- 
der this species, as they follow all its analogies, and are treated, in fact, ^proper 
names. 



59 The term declension is not applic- 
able to the nouns of the Kafir language, 
since all are subject to the same method 
of change in assuming their several 
forms. The diiferenee which subsists 
between them, bears a similar relation 
to the general principle of Euphonic 
concord, out of which such difference 
arises, as the distinction of species 



bears to that of genus ; and according- 
ly, the tenn species has been adopted, 
as the one which can be most appro- 
priately applied to indicate the several 
varieties of Kafir nouns. Besides, the 
same kind of difference is observed in 
other parts of speech, where the use 
of the term declension is wholly in- 
admissible, 



CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 90 

i. Such, are all nouns which commence with uno : as, unomya>, raven ; uno- 
tneva, wasp ; unomadudwane, scorpion j unompondwana, sugar-loaf button ; &c. 
See § 92. 

ii. The names of the months : as, untulikazi, uncwabalcazi, umpandu, um- 
fumfu, ulwezi, Sfc. 

iii. The letters of the alphabet : as, u-a, u-ebe, u-epe, fye. 

iv. Some particles when used as nouns : as, imve, uhai, unapalcade, tyr. 

v. Such also are the following : — uxami, guana ; unyiwa, garnet bead ; ungeshe, 
striped ear -bead ; uselorui, Ceylon pumpkin ; umbona, Indian corn j &c. 

2. The second species contains such nouns as have Hi or 
i for their singular prefix. 

3. The third species comprises all nouns which have im or 
in for their singular prefix, together with all those which 
have i, not included in the preceding species. 

4. The fourth species includes those nouns which \mveisi 
for their singular prefix. 

5. The fifth species contains such nouns as have ulu for 
their singular prefix, as well as all those which have u, not 
included in any other species. 

6. The sixth species comprises all nouns of the neuter gen- 
der which have um for their singular prefix. 

i. Personal nouns occasionally occur in this species, though very rarely. Such 
for instance are the names of some tribes ; and also the nouns ummelwane, a neigh- 
bour ; and umlwelwe, an infirm person. 

ii. In one instance the prefix um of this species is used in the contracted form 
ofu; thus, unyaka, a year, for umnyaka. 

7. The seventh species includes such nouns as have ubu 
for their prefix. 

This prefix is occasionally contracted into u, as in the nouns utyani, grass ; 
ufyalwa, beer 5 nboya, hair. 

8. The eighth species contains all nouns which have uku 
for their prefix. 

This may be termed the indefinite species as those forms 
of the pronoun and verb which correspond to the prefix uku, 
are generally employed when an indefinite sense is intended. 

DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

76. The great majority of nouns are derived from the 



100 [DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

root of the different Forms of the verb (§ 192), with gene- 
rally a mutation of the final vowel. 

First Species. — Nouns of the first species are usually 
furmed by prefixing um 3 and changing the final vowel of 
the root into i : as, umtengi, a trader ; from ienga, to buy : 
umsindisiy a saviour ; from sindisa, to save '- umtcleleli, an 
advocate; from ictelela, to advocate. 

1. The prefix u of the first species is a contraction of um, as this is of umu 
(§ 22, 3), and is mostly confined to proper names. 

2. Particles arc sometimes personified in the colloquial style by prefixing u ; 
as, u-Ewe, u-Noko, fyc. 

Second Species. — Nouns of the second species are formed 
by changing the final vowel of the root into o, and prefixing 
Hi or i : as, iliiva, precipice ; from wa, to fall : ivuso, alarm ; 
from vusa, to arouse. 

1. The prefix i is used before polysyllabic roots, and Hi before monosyllabic 
ones. Some nouns are found with both forms ; as, itye and ilitye, stone ; izwi 
and iliztvi, word ; iso and iliso, eye. Hence i is simply a contracted form of Hi. 

2. Nouns of tins species with the / form of the prefix, when derived from roots 
commencing with //, may at first sight appear to belong to the third j as, for 
example, inyatela, footstep ; inginingini, rogue ; incwaba, grave. A reference 
to the roots of such nouns, however, in connexion with rules given elsewhere, 
will at once show that they belong to the second. See under "Thied SrECiES" 
below, and also § 85, 2. 

3. Nouns of this species may also be mistaken for those of the fourth ; as, hango, 
gate ; isiko, custom ; isoka, bachelor ; ixiko, fireplace ; izinyo ; tooth ; izibiikoy 
ford ; all of which belong to the second, the i being alone the prefix. 

Third Species. — Nouns of the third species are usually 
derived from the root of the verb by prefixing im or in, and 
changing its final vowel into o. 

1. Im is used before roots which begin with a voivel, a labial 
consonant, or y : thus, imalato forefinger ; from alata, to 
point : imbe/iO, honour ; from bcha, to honour : impiliso, 
health ; from pilisa, cause to live : imfuyo, possession ; from 

fuya, to possess. 

2. In is used before roots which begin with any other kind 
of letter, except//, and/, in subjection to certain changes 
referred to below: thus, indmlam.0, thunder; from duduma, 
to thunder; inlolo, arrow; from tola, to shoot from a bow T : 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 101 

inzondo, hatred ; from zonda, to hate : inkonzo, service ; from 
konza, to serve. 

i. This prefix causes a mutation of letters to take place, when the root com- 
mences with s, c, q, x, or hi, according to rules in §§ 45, 2 — 3 ; and 48 ; where 
examples for illustration will be found. 

ii. It is evident from the above rules with regard to the respective uses of 
tin and in, that they are mere variations of the same prefix for euphonic purposes. 
This is likewise the case with the corresponding plural prefixes. 

hi. It may be further remarked that roots commencing with either h, /, u>, y, 
or r, rarely belong to this species, other prefixes being preferred. 

3. The prefix i of the third species is a contraction of the 
preceding im and in, or rather another variation, which ap- 
pears to be restricted in its use to those nouns, the roots of 
which have come from a foreign source. Thus, igusha, 
sheep ; iqiya, handkerchief; come from the Hottentot : ibo- 
Icwe, goat; iyure, hour; from the Dutch: and isugile, 
sugar ; igolide, gold ; from the English. Analogy, also, 
would sanction its use before roots commencing with either 
h or /; but, as observed above, nominal roots commencing 
with these letters, rarely, if ever, occur in the third species. 
It is used, however, with the interrogative nina (§ 330, 1), 
and likewise with the demonstrative adverb nardsi (§ 352), 
when employed as nouns. 

This prefix, accordingly, is easily distinguished from that of the same form 
belonging to the second species. 

Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Species. — Nouns of these 
several species are generally formed from the root of the 
verb, by changing its final vowel into o, and prefixing their 
respective prefixes. Thus: — Spec. 4: isikalo, aery; from 
kala, to cry out: isitetateto, tattle; from tetateta, to tat- 
tle: — Spec. 5: aliwo, feeling; from va, to feel: ancedo, 
help; from nceda, to help: — Spec 6: umpefumlo, soul; 
from pefumla, to breathe : umnikelo, offering ; from nihela, 
to give to. 

The prefix u of the fifth species, is in all cases a contraction of ulu, and hence 
it may be readily distinguished from the prefix u of the first species. The rule 
generally observed is, that u is used before polysyllabic roots ; and rdu before 
monosyllabic and vowel ones. 



102 DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

Seventh Species. — Nouns of this species derived from 
the root of the verb, generally merely prefix ubu; hut some- 
times the final vowel is also changed into o : thus, ubuncola, 
uncleanness ; from ncola, to be unclean: ubtdumko, wisdom; 
from lumka, to he wise. 

Eighth Species. — Nouns of this species simply prefix 
iiku to the root, and are, in fact, the Infinitive mood of the 
verhs from which they are derived : thus, ukutya, food ; 
from tya, to eat : ukusa, morning; from set, to dawn: uku~ 
Jilwa, evening; from hlwa, to become dark. 

77. In the derivation of nouns from the roots of verbs, 
the preceding rules, so far as regards the change of the fi- 
nal vowel, must be considered as denoting only the most 
general method of formation. 

1 . Some nouns are formed without any change in the root ; 
usually so, indeed, if derived from the root of a verb in the 
Passive voice ; whilst others are found with a different change 
of the final vowel. Thus : — Spec 1 : vmfuruliswa, disciple ; 
from fundiswa, to be taught: — Spec 2: itemba, hope; 
from temba, to trust : zpike, strife; from pika, to contend : 
iratshi, pride ; from ratsha, to be proud: — Spec 3: inklo- 
la, spy ; from Jtlola, to spy : imbaleJci, fleet runner ; from 
baleka, to run: — Spec 4: isixaJcanisi, offender, from xaka- 
nisa, to offend : isitshisa, heartburn : from tshisa, cause to 
burn: — Spec 5: vpahla, frame; from pallia, to surround: 
■ — Spec 6 : amsebenzi, work ; from sebenza, to work. 

2. Nouns which are derived from the roots of verbs that 
end in a?ia, frequently change the final vowel into e, and in 
some cases, into e or i indifferently. Thus: Hcolwane, a com- 
panion ; from kolwana, to be satisfied with one another : 
umlingane or umlingani, a friend or equal ; from linga??a, 
to be equal: umalamane or umalamani, relation; from ala- 
?nana, to be related. 

3. Many nouns, again, are formed by eliding the final 
syllable of the root of the verb. This is especially the case 
with verbs which have trisyllabic roots terminating in la, and 
za } though dissyllabic roots are occasionally treated in the 
same manner, as well as roots with other terminations* Thus : 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 103 

umtsi a a jump ; from tsiba, to jump ; isincolo, conversation; 
from ncokola, to converse : upau, sign or mark ; from paula, 
to mark : isandhla, hand ; from andhlala, to spread out : 
iciko, orator; from cikoza, to speak eloquently : isilima, a 
maimed person; from limassa, to maim: ilihvempu, a poor 
person; from hlwempuza, to be in want. 

i. Nouns villi reduplicated roots are generally formed according to tlie pre- 
ceding method : thus, ihilihili, one who talks foolishly ; from kiliza, to gabble : 
ipitipiti, commotion ; from pitiza, to put in commotion ; ityefcetyeke, slime ; from 
tyekeza, to puke : isltabataba, tribute ; from tabata, to take. 

ii. A noun is sometimes found in two forms, one derived from the full form of 
the root of the verb, and the other from the contracted one : thus, irexexu and 
ircxe, adidterer ; from rexeza, to commit adultery. 

hi. Occasionally, the initial syllable of the root of the verb is elided, instead 
of the final: as, itumba, a boil or painful tumom' ; from tutumba, to have acute 
pain; uJaila, weeds; from hlakula, to weed. 

78. Nouns are also derived from the roots of adjectives ; 
as, inncne, truth ; from nenc, true : isitiinzi, many, from 
ninssij many : ummunacana, sorrel ; from muncwana, sour- 
ish : ubude, length ; from de, long : ubukulu, greatness ; 
from lulu, great. 

79. Some nouns are derived immediately from the roots of 
other nouns ; but this method of formation is seldom adopted 
except in the case of such nominal roots as are primitives. 

1. Abstract nouns of the seventh species are frequently 
thus derived : as, ub untie una, childhood; from umntwana, 
a child : ubukosi, chieftanship ; from hikosi, chief: ubusoJca, 
bachelorship; from isoka, bachelor: ubugirala, cowardice; 
from igicala, coward : ubudoda, manhood ; from indoda, 
man. 

2. Personal and other kinds of nouns are sometimes form- 
ed in the same way : thus, u-Moi/a, the Spirit ; from ununoya, 
wind, or spirit, in its neuter application : um-JRlni, a Gra- 
ham's Townite ; from i-Rini, Graham's Town : Isitlxo, a 
god; from u-Tixo, God. 

80. Nouns are likewise derived from particles, though 
rarely: thus, imazi, cow; from azi s the same root as is found 
in the feminine affix kassi (§321): umpa&aii, councillor; 



101 DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

from pakati, inside: umpambi/i, the front; from pambili) 
before. 

81. Compound nouns are formed by a combination of two 
or more of any of the foregoing methods, and in which cir- 
cumstances, contraction and elision more or less occur. 
Thus, indhlilifa, heir ; from d/ila, to eat, and ilifa, inheri- 
tance : umlimandhlela, land-mark ; from lima, to cultivate, 
and indhlela, path: isimungunyiga&i s leech; from mungunya, 
to suck, and igazi, blood : umawokulu, grandmother ; from 
umawo, mother, and Jculu, great : innxenn?je, some ; from 
innxa, part, and ennye, one : umnumzana, a person of rank ; 
from umnini, proprietor, and umzana, a place : umngenan- 
dklwini, bridal housewarming ; from ngcna, to enter, and 
endklwini, into the house: isimakade, a thing of long stand- 
ing ; from ma, to stand, and kade, long. 

82. Proper names are formed from almost any kind of 
word, or any combination of words, by prefixing u, first 
species. The occasion of the name, is generally some cir- 
cumstance, however trivial, which happened at the time of 
the person's birth, or soon afterwards. Thus, u-Kala, Cry- 
out ; u-Kwenkwezi, Star; u-Mbodlila, Wild-cat; u-Matyu- 
mza, Young-bees-in-the-comb; u-Ndhlclen'i, In -t he-pa th ; u- 
Hlatapi, Where-do-you-live ; u-Hlalapantsi, Sit-down; &c. 
See close of § 92. 

83. Nouns are sometimes found in a reduplicated state, 
either to give a frequentative or intensitive force to their mean- 
ing; as, intwanantwand, very little things; from intwana, little 
things; or, to alter it ; as, innsobosobo, a small black berry ; 
from umsobo, the shrub which bears it. This is the case also 
with some which are derived from verbs : thus, ukohlokohlo, 
cough ; the simple form of which comes from kohla, the ob- 
solete primitive of kohlela, to cough : impitimpiti, confusion ; 
the simple form of which is derived from piliza, to put into 
confusion. 

84. In the derivation of nouns from vowel roots, dissylla- 
bic prefixes drop their final vowel, except ulu and uku, which 
change it into w according to the usual rule. Thus : aboni, 
sinners; plural of umoni, sinner; from ona, to sin : amendu, 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 105 

speed ; root endu : isoyiko, fear ; from oyika, to fear : u- 
Iwaluso, herding ; from alusa, to herd : ubanuse, sorcery; 
from isanuse, sorcery; root anuse : ukwazi, knowledge ; from 
«sri, to know. 

1. The final vowel of ubu is dropped, because ic, into which it should change, 
is incompatible with the preceding consonant. 

2. In a few instances the initial vowel of a vowel root is dropped after the 
prefix, whether this be monosyllabic or dissyllabic. Thus : unwabiso, consola- 
tion ; from onwabisa, to console : ihlukahluka, a rank or file of people ; from 
ahlukahluka, to be distributed: umlamani, relative; from alamana, to be rela- 
ted. In this way there is sometimes a variation in the root of a noun, one num- 
ber taking its full form, and the other its elided one : thus, umlungu, a white 
man ; abelungu, white men : iliva, a thorn ; ameva, thorns. 

So. In the derivation of nouns from roots commencing 
with nasal m or n, the following rules are ohserved : — 

1. M } as initial in a root, is omitted after all prefixes which 
end in m, except when it is immediately followed by a vowel : 
As, impumlo, nose; root mpumlo: imfama, a blind man ; 
from mfama, the obsolete primitive ofmfameka, to be blind: 
But xxmmango, ridge ; root mango : ummizo, gullet ; root 
mlzo : xmvnotigo, marrow ; root mongo : immitu, day ; root 
mini. 

2. N y as initial in a root, is omitted after all prefixes 
which terminate in the same form of letter, except where it 
is immediately followed by a vowel, semi-vowel, or soft click 
(§48) : As, mti/wilo, a dive ; from ntywila, to dive : mgivevu, 
a gray-headed person ; from ngicevu, gray : mkazana, wo- 
man ; root nkcu&ana : mzwcuia, a handsome person ; root 
nsswana : mgcatsha, betrayer ; from ngcatska, to betray : 
ingxolo, clamour; from ngxola, to clamour .- But innamba, 
boa-constrictor ; root uamba : innwele, hairs ; plural of u- 
jnvele, hair ; root nwele : mngoka, serpent ; root nyoka ; in- 
nxaniva, thirst; from nxanwa, to thirst: mncamlo, a taste; 
from ncamla, to taste : innqwelo, wagon; root nqwelo. 

i. On the other hand, these letters appear to be sometimes inserted epentheti- 
cally, as in ubumfutskane, ubumhlaba, ubundhlalifa, and in some tribal names. 

ii. Occasionally, they would seem to be omitted after prefixes which do not 
terminate in rn or n : thus, ubuhlope is sometimes heard for ubumhlope\ root 
mhlspe, 

O 



106 DIMINUTIVE NOUNS. 

86. The nominal prefixes do not admit of any exclusive 
arrangement, as respects their general force or meaning. 
The nearest approach to this is to be found in the first, sixth, 
seventh, and eighth species ; the first being usually confined 
to personal nouns, the sixth to neuter nouns, the seventh to 
abstract nouns, and the eighth to verbal nouns. The other 
species are generally neuters, though in several instances 
they include both abstract and personal nouns. 

1. Different prefixes are sometimes found with the same 
root, but without effecting any difference of meaning : as, 
izwane and nzwane, toe ; umhlobo and isihlobo, friend. 

2. More generally, however, a different prefix causes a 
different signification to the same root. Thus: ikiwane, fig ; 
umkiwane, fig-tree: ilizwe, country ; isizwe, nation : umntu, 
human being : isintu, human species : uluntu, human race : 
ubuntu, human nature. 

DIMINUTIVE NOUNS, 

87. Diminutive nouns are formed by affixing ana, azana, 
or ani/ana, according to the different kinds or degrees of 
diminution intended to be expressed, to their roots, the final 
vowel of these, if a, e, or i, coalescing in the initial vowel of 
the affix; but if o, or u, changing into w, except where 
the w is incompatible with the preceding consonant, when it 
is dropped. 

1. The most usual form of diminutive nouns is that which 
is derived by affixing- ana: as, intakana, a little bird; from 
intaka, bird : inncwadana, a little book ; from inncwadi, 
book: intwana, a little thing ; from into, thing: umfana, a 
youth ; from umfo, a man : indhkvana, a little house ; from 
indlu, house : imvana, lamb ; from imvu, sheep. 

Isonka, bread, has for its diminutive, isonkwana, which is the Kafirized 
form of isinkivana, just as isonlca is that of isinkwa. 

2. If the nouns denote distinction of sex, or are intended 
to do so, azana is used for the feminine diminutive, and ana 
for the masculine : as, intombazana, a little girl; from in- 
tombi, girl: inkosana, a little chief ; and inkosazana, a lit- 
tle chiefess ; from inkosi, chief. 



NOUNS OF COMPARISON. 107 

i. The final syllable of a nominal root is sometimes elided before azana: 
thus, imbab azana-, young female bush buck ; from imbabala, bush buck. 

ii. In some instances a noun assumes one of the above forms, apparently 
for no other purpose than to lengthen the nominal root; as, inzwana, a hand- 
some man ; inkazana, a woman. 

3. To express the lowest degree of diminution, anyanais 
generally used, though azana is also employed with the 
same force : thus, isilo, animal ; isilwana, small animal ; 
isilwanyana, insect : iqela, troop ; iqelana, small troop ; 
iqelazana, smaller troop. 

88. If the consonant immediately preceding the final vowel 
of the nominal root, be one of those mentioned in § 45, 4, 
a change will also take place in that, before the preceding 
affixes, according to rules there stated. As, indaiyana, a 
scrap of news ; from indaba, news : inlcatyana, a young ox ; 
from inkabi, an ox : inkonyana, a calf; from i?ikomo, a beast : 
intsatshana, little children ; and intsatshanyana, very little 
children ; from intsapo, children : intanjana, little thong ; 
from intambo, thong: umlanjana, rivulet; from umlambo, 
river : ihlwentshana, a partially poor person ; from ihlwempu, 
a poor person. 

tfOUXS OF COMPARISON. 

89. Nouns of comparison are formed by affixing ra s or 
ftazi, to their roots. 

1. In the former case, diminution of quality is that which 
is chiefly indicated by the form, though sometimes nothing 
more is intended than a general likeness or resemblance. 
Thus : ubunyakamara, dampishness ; from ubunyakama, 
dampness : ubukosira, authority like that belonging to the 
chieftanship; from ubukosi, chieftanship: innya?nara } that 
which is like flesh, or fleshly; from innyama, flesh: itongo- 
ra, a sleep-like person, or sluggard ; from uhu-tcmgo, sleep. 

2. In the latter case, an increase of quality is usually in- 
tended : as, imiti/cazi, large trees ; from imiti, trees : ilitye- 
Jcazi, rock ; from ilitye, stone : umsingakazi, a flood ; from 
umsinga, a current : isitandwakazi, one who is greatly 
beloved ; from isitandwa, a beloved one. 



108 GENDER OF NOUNS. 

GENDER OF NOUNS. 

90. Two genders may be assigned to Kafir nouns, personal 
and neuter ; the former including persons of both sexes, and 
the latter things. But this distinction is of little use in the 
grammar of the language, except in the case of the nominal 
prefix ton, which follows different analogies, as it belongs to 
nouns representing persons or things. See § 395, 1. 

91. "The feminine is distinguished from the masculine or 
common gender, in the following ways : — 

1. Sometimes by affixing Icazi : as, 

Inkosi, chief Inkosikazi, chief's wife. 

Ihashe, horse Diashekazi, mare. 

A noun sometimes elides the final syllable of its root before 7cazi: as, Uokazi, 
heifer: from hole, calf: imbabakazi, female bush buck; from imbabala, bush 
buck : umnikazi, proprietress ; from umnini, proprietor. 

2. But more generally by the use of a different word : as, 

Indoda, man Umfazi, woman. 

Inkwenkwe, boy .... Iniombi, girl. 

3. In some cases an additional word is used by way of ex- 
planation : as, 

Umntu cyhidoda ; A male person. 

Umntu ongumfazi ; A female person. 

Inkomo eyinkunzi \ A male beast. 

Inkomo eyimazi ; J A female beast. 

92. There is a peculiarity in the words forefather, and mo- 
t/ier, which requires notice. Three forms are employed to 
express each term, according as they are used in the first, 
second, or third person. Thus : — 

1st. — Vbaivo, (my) father Uma, (my) mother. 

2nd. — Uyihlo, (thy) father ....Unyoko, (thy) mother. 
Srd. — Uyise, (his) father Unina, (his) mother. 

The same distinction is observed throughout all their derivatives. Uma is 
the contracted form of umawo, but which never occurs except in composition. 

Uyise and Unina are frequently used in the contracted 
forms of aso and uno, in composition with nouns or other words, 
the initial vowels of which are usually dropped. Thus;— 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 



109 



tfoomfazi, father-in-law t/nomfazi, mother-in law. 

[Zsomakolwa, father of believers . . Uno-Saxa, mother of Sarah. 

In this way they are frequently found as component parts of the names of 
persons. Thus, u-Sonto is literally, Father-of-a-thing: u-Nontsimbi, Mother- 
ol'-beads : Sec. Uno is also found in the names of things. 

NUMBER OF NOUNS. 



93. Nouns of the first six species have two numbers, the 
singular, and the plural. Nouns of the seventh and eighth 
species have no distinction of number. A change of number 
is effected by varying the prefix, the plural being formed 
from the singular, according to the following table : — 



Spec. 


Prefixes. 


Singular. Plural. 


1 


urn changes into aba 
u . . o 


um-ntu, man. \ aba-ntu, men. 
u-dade, sister. 1 o-dade, sisters. 


2 


ili) 

. > . . ama 


ili-zwi, word. ama-zwi, words. 
i-hashe, horse. 1 ama-hashe, horses. 


3 


im . . izim 
in . . izin 

i . . izi 


im-azi, cow. j izim-azi, cozes. 
in-dhlu, house. izin-dhlu, houses. 
i-hangu, pig. l izi-hangu, pigs. 


4 


isi . . izi 


isi-tya, basket. ! izi-tya, baskets. 


5 


( izim 
ulu *) 

< JZill 
^1Z1 


u-bambo, rib. 
ulu-ti, rod. 
u-hvimi, tongue. 


izim-bambo, ribs. 
izin-ti, rods. 
izi-lwimi, tongues. 


6 


um . . imi 


um-ti, tree, imi-ti, trees. 



Species 1. — The plural prefix o is a contraction of aba, as 
u is of um, and follows, accordingly, the same analogies. 

The plural of proper names, is sometimes used with a more extended appli- 
cation than that which is usually found in other languages. Thus o-Pato may 
denote not only two or more persons bearing the name u-Pato, but also the 
attendants or people of Pato. 

Species 3. — The plural prefixes of the third species are 
generally used in the contracted forms of im, in, and i, re- 
spectively, in which case they have the same form as their 
singular prefixes. But this creates no difficulty, as the 
succeeding word, or the immediate context, will always 
determine the number to which the noun belongs. Thus;—- 



110 NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

Imazi yam, my cow : . . . . Imazi zam, my cows. 

Indhlu yako, your house : .. .. Indhlu zako, your houses, 

lhangu yalce, his pig : .. .. Ihangu zake, his pigs. 



Wayezala onyana nentombi \ 
Ukuze senziwe indhlilifa ; 
Ezomeleza iremente ; 



He begat sons and daughters. 
That we should be made heirs. 
Confirming the churches. 

Species 5. — The plural prefixes of this species are similar 
in form, to those of the third, and, like them, are mere va- 
riations of the same prefix for euphonic purposes, and usually 
used in the several contracted forms of im, in, and i. The 
general rule is, that izim or im is used before roots com- 
mencing with a labial consonant; isi or ?', before those which 
begin with h, ovl; and izin or in, in all other cases. The 
following are examples : — 

Ulu or u into izim or im. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Ulu-vo, feeling : .. ... Izim-vo, feelings. 

U-bambo, rib: .. .. Im-bambo, ribs. 

U-pondo, horn : . . . . lm-pondo, horns. 

Ulu or u into izin or in. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Ulu-ti, rod : . . . . Izin-ti, rods. 

Ulu-su, a skin : . . . . Izin-tsu, skins. 

U-donga, wall: .. .. In-donga, walls. 

U-tango, fence : . . . . In-tango, fences. 

U-kuko, mat : . . . . In-kuko, mats. 

U-ncedo, help : . . . u In-ncedo, helps. 

U-hlobo, sort : . . . . In-klobo, sorts. 

U-nwele, hair : .. . . In-nwele, hairs. 

U-rozo, a row : . . . . In-rozo, rows. 

Ulu or u into izi or i. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

U-hadi, harp: .. .. I-hadi, harps. 

U-lovane, chameleon: .. .. I-lovane, chameleons. 

U-lwimi, tongue : . . . . I-lwimi, tongues. 

With regard to the above contractions in plural nouns of the third and fifth spe- 
cies, analogy would seem to require, that the full forms should be used before 
monosyllabic roots, and the contracted forms before polysyllabic ones. But 
though this usage sometimes obtains, yet it is not a very general one. Mm and 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. Ill 

izin are seldom heard, whilst izi never occurs, as it does not appear that there 
are any monosyllabic roots, in either of these species, which begin with h, or I. 

94. Some nouns form their plural irregularly. In other 
words, certain nouns belong to one species in the singular 
number, and to another, in the plural. 

1. Nouns of the third species with the singular prefix in, 
take ama for their plural prefix, when they denote distinc- 
tion of sex. Thus : — 

Indoda, man : ... . , , Amadoda, men. 

Inkwenkwe, boy : ... . . Amakwenkwe, boys. 

Inkosikazi, chiefess : . . . . Amakosikazi, chic/esses. 

2. Nouns which are the names of nations, tribes, and the 
like, frequently employ the same form of prefix for their 
plural number. As : — 

Um-Xosa, a Kafir : . . . . Ama-Xosa, Kafirs. 

Um-Pondo, a Pondo : . . . . Amam-Pondo, Pondos. 

Um-Bira, a Bekaite : .. .. Ama-Bira, Bekaites. 

3. A few other nouns, also, are found adopting a similar 

usage. As : — 

Umpakati, councillor: ., .. Amapakati, councillors. 

Ubala, a desert : . . . . Amabala, deserts. 

TTwalwa, rock : . . . . Amalwalwa, rocks. 

95. A noun occasionally occurs with different roots, or 
rather, with different forms of the same root, in the singular 
and plural numbers. As : — 

Iliso, eye : . . . . . . . . Amehlo, eyes 

Jzinyo, tooth : . . . . . . Amenyo, teeth. 

In the latter case, however, the fuller form, amazinyo, is also used. See 
below, § 97. 

96. Some nouns, again, are defective with regard to num- 
ber. For example : — 

1. Some are only found in the singular form, and are 
generally of the fifth or sixth species : as, ubisi, sweet milk ; 
ututu, ashes ; umsi, smoke. 

2. Others only occur in the plural form, and are usually 
of the second species : as, amanssi, water ; amasi, sour milk ; 
amendu, speed ; amandhla, power. 



112 



FORMS OF NOUNS. 



97. A few nouns are redundant with respect to number ; 
some having two forms in the singular, and one in the plural ; 
and others, one form in the singular, and two forms in the 
plural. Thus : izwane and uzwane, a toe ; amazwane, toes : 
ulwandhle, sea ; ilwandhle and amalwandhle, seas. 

Corresponding Euphonic Letters. 

98. Each of the nominal prefixes, both singular and plu- 
ral, has its own form of euphonic letter, or letters, with 
which, in its various uses ( § 54, 3 ), it is always connected 
in grammatical government. The following table, accor- 
dingly, shows the correspondency of the euphonic letters to 
the several nominal prefixes, according to their species and 
number. 



02 
H 

a 


SINGU- 
LAR 

PREEIXES 


ETTPH. LETTERS 


PLURAL PRE 


nxES 


EUP1I. LETTERS 


BEFORE 
VOWELS 


BEFORE 
CONSO- 
NANTS 


BETORE 
VOWELS 


BEFORE 

CONSO- 
NANTS 


i 


inn. u 


W 


wn 


aba, 









b 


ba 


2 


ili, i 


1 


li 


ama 








a 


wa 


3 


mi, in, i 


y 


yi 


( izim, 


lzin, 

in, 


1Z1 

i 


) 


z 


zi 


4 


1S1 


s 


si 


1Z1 








z 


Zl 


5 


ulu, u 


1 


lu 


( izim, 

( im, 


lzrn, 

in, 


1Z1 

i 


> 


z 


zi 


G 


mil 


w 


wu 


mil 








J 


yi 


7 


ubu 


b 


bu 














8 


uku 


k 


ku 















Tt will be seen from this table, that the same form of euphonic letter, or 
letters, belongs to different prefixes ; and also, that the same form of prefix 
is sometimes singular, and at other times plural. Care will be therefore re- 
quired, lest the species, or numbers, be confounded together. 

FOPvMS OF NOUNS. 



99. Kafir nouns possess several different forms, in order 
to express the various modifications of which their primary 
meaning is susceptible, according to the different relations 
which they may sustain to other words. They are divisible 



PRINCIPAL FORMS. 113 

into two classes, the former containing the noun in its sim- 
ple state, and such forms as are derived immediately there- 
from, and which may be termed direct or principal forms ; 
and the latter containing those that are derived from any of 
these the principal forms, and which may be therefore 
termed indirect or compound forms. 

PEOCIPAL POSilS. 

100. There are twelve principal forms, namely, the Simple 
form, two Possessive forms, two Dative forms, the Locative, 
Vocative, Causal, Instrumental, and Conjunctive forms, and 
two Comparative forms. Of these several forms, one is de- 
rived by inflection, another by elision, and the remaining ten 
by prefixes. 

SIMPLE TOEM. 

101. The simple form is that from which the others are 
derived, and expresses merely the name of the person or thing 
which the noun represents. 

POSSESSIVE FOBMS. 

102. There are two possessive forms, which express the 
more usual significations of the preposition of The first of 
these is common to all nouns, but the second is limited to 
personal nouns alone, and more particularly to those which 
are proper names. 

FIRST POSSESSIVE FORM. 

103. Thefrst possessive form is derived from the simple 
one, by prefixing the possessive particle which corresponds 
to the prefix of the governing noun ; the final vowel of the 
particle coalescing with the initial vowel of the simple form, 
according to rules given in § 37, 3. For the form and 
derivation of the several possessive particles, see § 303. 

The following examples will be the best illustration of the 
above rule, first observing, that the species and possessive 
particles are those of the first or governing noun. 

p 



114 



FORMS OF NOUNS. 



SPE. 


PARTS. 


SINGULAR. 


PARTS, 


PLURAL. 


1 


wa 


umfazi werikosi 


ba 


abafazi bailwsi 


2 


la 


ihaslie lenkosi 


a 


amahashe enkosi 


3 


ya 


into y^bantu 


za 


izinto zabantu 


4 


sa 


isitya somfazi 


za 


izitya zomf&zi 


5 


lwa 


usana Zwomfazi 


za 


intsana umfazi 


G 


wa 


umti i6'<?lizwe 


ya 


imiti ye-lizwe 


7 


ba 


ubude Mizwe 






1 8 


kwa 


ukutya kwabzintu 







SECOND TOSSESSIVE FORM. 



104. The second possessive form is derived, by prefixing 
the particle ka and the euphonic letters corresponding to the 
prefix of the governing noun, to the simple form, the initial 
vowel of which is dropped. Those forms of the euphonic 
letters, however, which are derived from the initial vowel of 
the nominal prefixes, are usually omitted. 



SPE. 


PARTS. 


SINGULAR 


PARTS. 


PLURAL 


1 


wuka 


umfazi ka-P&t® 


baka 


abafazi baka-'Pato 


2 


lika 


ihashe Ukahnwo 


wdka, 


amahaslie kab&wo 


3 


yikn 


indhlu fomkosi 


zika 


izindMu zikcmkosi 


4 


sika 


isitya sika-JLosn 


zika 


izitya zika-lLosa, 


5 


luka 


usana luka-JLamsb 


zika 


intsana zika-K.amsi 


G 


w?wka 


umti /ra-Kobi 


yika 


imiti ka-Isiobi 


7 


buka 


ubude Imfcam-Qpi 






8 


kuka 


\ ukutya kukam-H.ala 







105. The preceding possessive forms are both influenced 
by the Euphonic concord. The prefixes which express the 
modification of meaning denoted by of, are a in the first form, 
and ka in the second. The euphonic letters are employed 
to indicate their grammatical connexion. 

The possessive forms, therefore, consist of three distinct 
elements, namely, the simple form, the prefix which modifies 
its meaning, and the euphonic letters which denote their 
special relation to the governing word. Every possessive 
form may be thus analyzed into its component parts. For 
example: lenlcosi consists of the euphonic/, which indicates 



PRINCIPAL FOPcMS. 115 

relationship to a governing noun of the second species, 
singular; of the modifying prefix a, which expresses of, and 
unites with the above euphonic letter in the form of the 
possessive particle la; and of inkosi the simple form, which 
contains the primary idea, and coalesces with the preceding 
particle in one word, according to the principle of composition. 
Likabaivo may be analyzed in a similar manner : U, the 
formal sign of grammatical relation ; ha, the modifying idea; 
and nbawo, the principal one. 

It will be evident from the preceding rules and remarks, that every noun may 
have as many different possessive forms, as there are nominal prefixes ; every noun 
depending, for the true and full form of its possessive, on the particular form 
of the prefix of the governing noun. 

DATIVE FOBMS. 

108. There are two dative forms, including the usual sig- 
nifications of to, in, into, on, at. from, among, as well as 
some of those attached to with, of about, $c. The first 
form is common to all nouns, except those of the first spe- 
cies which have u for their singular prefix, or which express 
proper names. The second more particularly belongs to 
those nouns which are not found in the first form, though 
most kinds of nouns sometimes assume it. 

FIRST DATIVE FORM. 

107. The first or infected dative form is derived from the 
simple one, by changing its initial vowel into e, and its final 
vowel, according to its form, as follows : — 

a changes into eni : as, esityeni from isitya. 
e ... eni : as, eliasheni from ihaske. 

i ... ini : as, enkosini from inkosi. 

o ... weni : as, ebusweni from ubuso. 

u ... wini : as, endhlwmi from indhlu. 

1. But when w is incompatible with the preceding consonant or consonants, 
o changes into eni, and u into ini : as, endaiveni, from indawo, place ; elifini, 
from ilifv, cloud. See also the examples below, § 108. 

2. The diphthongs ai and au separate into their component parts, in passing 
through the process of inflection : thus, ennqa-in.i, from innqai, clay-pot ; 
elupa-wini } from upau } a mark, 



116 FORMS OF NOUNS. 

108. A change also takes place in the consonant immedi- 
ately preceding the final vowel, when it happens to be either 
b, p, ni, or either of the combinations mb or mp, according 
to rules stated in § 45, 4. Thus : — 

b changes into ty : as, engutyeni from higubo. 

p ... tsh : as, elusatsheni from usapo. 

m ... ny : as, emlonyeni from umlomo. 

mb ... nj : as, emlanjeni from umlambo. 

mp . . . ntsli : as, emakhventslieni from amahlwempu. 

These consonantal changes, however, are not uniformly observed. They 
appear to occur regularly, only in the case of those nouns which terminate in o ; 
though even here there are exceptions, as, for example, enkomeni from inkomo. 
When the final vowel is a, the above consonants are sometimes changed, and 
at other times not, usage appearing in this instance to be equally favourable to 
both forms. With other final vowels, they do not often suffer mutation. 

109. The contracted forms of the prefixes of nouns of the 
third and fifth species, are restored to their full forms in the 
formation of the first or inflected dative form. Thus : — 

Species 3. Plur. — ezimazini from imazi=izhnazi. 

ezmkomeni ... inkomo=izinkomo. 

eziguslieni ... iguslia=iziguslia. 

Species 5. Sing. — eludakem ... udaka=uludaka, 

eluhvalweni ... ulwalwa=uliilwalwa. 

Plur. — ezimbanjeni ... imbambo=izimbanibo. 

ezintsatsheni ... intsapo=izintsapo. 

ezilwimini ... ilwimi=izilwiuii. 

110. Nouns which are the names of places or rivers, sim- 
ply change their initial vowel, in taking their inflected form. 
Thus :— 

e-Eini from i-Eini. 
em-Tati . . . um-Tati. 
e-Qonci . .. i-Qonci. 
en-^N"ciba . . . in-Nciba. 

Many nouns which denote a particular place or situation, 
or indicate a definite period of time, observe the same rule. 
Thus :— 

ekaya from ikaya, home. 
ebuhlanti ... ubuhlanti, cattle-fold. 
emnyango . , , iinmyango ; door-ivcy. 



PRINCIPAL FORMS. 



117 



elwandhle ... ulwandlile, tic sea, 

emmiiii . . . inrmrni, the day. 

ebusuku ... ubiisuku, the night. 

ebusika ... ubusika, ivinter. 

ekwiucttila ... ikwmdlila, autumn. 

Some nouns are used in both ways : as enkloko and enklokweni, from iiikloko, 
head: elubala and elubaleni, from ubala, wilderness. 



SECOND DATIVE FOEM. 

111. The second or prefixual dative form, is derived by 
prefixing the particle hi to the simple form, the initial 
vowel of which is dropped ; or otherwise, the final u of hi 
is either changed into w, before the initial vowel of the 
noun, or altogether elided. Compare the several usages 
of** §308. Thus:— 



#w-Kaina from 

fomyana 

&2moiQyai 

&wmboiia 

£Mxn-Hala 

/fomifazi 

A^bantu 

A^t-inkosi 

Z^anialiaske . . . 

&oyise 

hanti 

#wisiqamo . . . 



ii-Kama, Kama. 
imyana, son. 
unomyai, raven. 
mnbona, maize. 
uni-Hala, TJmhaJa. 
umfazi, tcoman. 
abantu, people. 
inkosi, chief. 
anialiaslie, horses, 
oyise, fathers. 
umti, tree. 
isiqamo, fruit. 



LOCATIYE FOEM. 



112. The locative form is limited to those nouns which 
are the names of persoiis. It is formed by prefixing the 
particle hva to their simple forms, the initial vow r els of which 
are elided. This form connects the idea of place or resi- 
dence with that of the person, and expresses the sense of 
at, to, oy from, according to the construction. Thus : — 

kwa-X.os&, at Xosa's place ; from u-Xosa. 

/ara-Piito, to Pato's place ; ... u-Pato. 

A^ni-Hala, from XMiala/s place ; ,., urn-Hala, 



118 



FORMS OF NOUNS. 



Examples. 



TTkwa-Xosa ; 
Uye kwa-Pato ; 
Ndivela kwani-Hala 



He is at Xosa's. 

He has gone to Pato's. 

I come from Umhala's. 



YOCATIYE TOEM. 



113. The vocative form is used in addressing a person or 
thin_ 
initial vowel. Thus 



g, and is derived from the simple form by eliding its 



Kama from u-Kama. 



Mliala ... 


um-Hala. 


Nyana 


luiyana. 


Mfazi ... 


umfazi. 


Bantu 


abantu. 


Lizwe 


ilizwe. 


Mahashe ... 


amahashe 


Nkosi 


inkosi. 



1. But plural nouns of the first species, with the o form 
of the prefix, generally prefix their euphonic letter in the 
derivation of the vocative form; or, what amounts to the 
same thing, the b of the prefix in its full form, is restored 
in the formation of their vocatives. Thus: — 

Bobawo from obawo. 
Boyise . . . oyise. 

Bodade . . . odade. 

Singular nouns of the second species, with the i prefix, occasionally observe 
a similar rule in forming their vocatives. 

2. In deriving the vocative forms of nouns of the third 
and fifth species, the tincontracted forms of their prefixes 
must be used. As : — 

Species 3. JPlur. — Zimazi from imazi. 

Zinkomo ... inkomo. 

Zigusha ... igusha. 

Species 5. Sing. — Lusapo ... usapo. 

Ludwai ... udwai. 

Plur. — Zimbambo . . . imbambo. 

Zintshaba ... intshaba. 

Zilwimi ... ilwimi. 






PRINCIPAL FORMS. 



119 



CAUSAL FOEM. 

1 14. The causal form is derived from the simple one, by 
prefixing its euphonic letter or substitute ; and varies, there- 
fore, in each species and number, according to the particular 
form of the nominal prefix. Compare §§ 98 and 55. This 
form of the noun expesses by, of, for, in their causal 
applications ; thus connecting the cause with the effect, or the 
agent with the action. Thus : — 



SPEC 


N"UM. 


ETJ.LET. 


SIMPLE FOEM. 


CAUSAL FOEM. 


1 

2 


sing. 
plur. 

sing. 


ng 
ng 
1 


umfazi, ndade 
abafazi, odade 
ilizwi, ihashe 


ngumf&zi, wyudade 
/ayabafazi, wyodade 
Zilizwi, Zikaske 




plur. 


ng 


amazwi 


^amazwi 


3 


sing. 

plur. 


y 

z 


indlilii 
izindlilu, inkosi 


yindHhi 
zizindhm, sinkosi 


4 


sing. 


s 


isitva 


sisitya 




plur. 


z 


izitva 


sdzitya 


5 
6 


sing. 

plur. 
sing, 
plur. 


1 

z 

y 


uluti, upondo 
izinti, impondo 
umti 
imiti 


Zuluti, Zupondo 
zizinti, ^impondo 
f&yumti 
yimiti 


7 




b 


ubuso 


Jubuso 


8 




k 


ukutya 


/.■ukutya 



After passive and some other kinds of verbs, the euphonic 
letter or substitute is sometimes omitted, together with the 
initial vowel of the simple form. This usage more especially 
obtains when such verbs are used in their negative forms. 
For example: — 



Kungaziwa 'mntu ; 
Abayi kuhlelwa 'nto; 
Ubezele bubele ; 



That no one should know it. 

Nothing shall befall them. 

He was full of compassion. 
This rule is observed, in point of fact, by all nouns which employ contracted 
prefixes, the euphonic letter simply being, in such circumstances, a restoration 
of the consonant of the full prefixes, and consequently the causal form is, strict- 
ly speaking, in an elided state. 



INSTEUMENTAL FOEM, 

115. The instrumental form is derived from the simple 



120 FORMS OF NOUNS. 

one, by prefixing the particle nga, the final vowel of the latter 
coalescing with the initial vowel of the former, according to 
§ 37, 3. This form expresses by, through, with, in their 
medial or instrumental applications ; thus connecting the 
means with the end, or the instrument with the action. It 
also expresses concerning, according to, on account of, as 
well as some of the senses attached to at, in, and of. The 
following examples will serve for illustration : — 

^omfazi from umfazi. 

^y«bafazi . . . abafazi. 

??yonyana . . . onyana. 

ngeiizwi . . . ilizwi. 

wyamazwi . . . amazwi. 

ngenkosi ... inkosi. 

nyomti . . . umti. 

ngemiki . . . imiti. 

CONJUNCTIVE FORM. 

116. The conjunctive form is derived from the simple one, 
by prefixing the particle na, the final vowel of which coales- 
ces with the initial vowel of the noun, as that of nga does 
in the preceding form. The significations which it ex- 
presses, are those of and, also, and the conjunctive sense of 
with. Thus : — 

womfazi from umfazi. 

abafazi . . . abafazi. 

^onyana . . . onyana. 

neYvzwi . . . ilizwi. 

%«mazwi . . . amazwi. 

wenkosi . . . inkosi. 

?zomti . . . umti. 

nexmti . . . imiti. 

FIRST COMPARATIVE FORM. 

117. The first comparative form is derived from the simple 
one, by prefixing the particle nganga, w T hich observes the 
same rule with regard to its final vowel as nga does. It is 
usually employed to denote some kind of equality between 
two objects, and corresponds in general force to so as, or as, 
when used comparatively. 



COMPOUND FORMS. 



121 



Ngokuba ukwa ngango-Fa,ro ; 
Ukuba ninokolo olu»ga»£okozo 

lwembewu yemositade : 
Ngento engangenam lemipefumlo ; 
Jnani labo Yvngangenldsibati yolwa 

ndhle ; 



Examples. 

For thou art even as Pharoah. 

If ye have faith as a grain of mus- 
tard seed. 

According to the number of the souls. 

The number of them is as the sand 
of the sea. 



SECOND COMPARATIVE FORM. 



118. The second comparatice form is derived from the 
simple one, by prefixing the particle njenga, the final vowel 
of which coalesces with the initial vowel of the noun, as that 
ofttg«does. This form denotes similarity, and expresses 
like as, according to, like, as. 

Examples. 



Esihla njengehohe ; 
Eberolwa njengemvu. ekuxelweni 
Njengokuswela kwabo ; 
Wabulawa njengomfeli ka-Kristu 



Descending like a dove. 
He was led as a sheep to the slaughter. 
According to their need. 
He was put to death as a martyr for 
Christ. 



COMPO END FORMS . 

119. Besides their principal forms, Kafir nouns, as before 
observed, also possess several compound forms. These are 
derived from some of the former, chiefly by means of addi- 
tional prefixes, which become incorporated with the others 
by the principle of composition ; and they may be arranged, 
therefore, according to the principal form which constitutes 
the leading element in their formation. In this way there 
are found, four compound inflected dative forms, jour com- 
pound prefixual dative forms, four compound locative forms, 
and one compound vocative form; making altogether, thirteen 
compound forms. 

COMPOUND INFLECTED DATIVE FORMS. 

120. The frst compound form is derived, by prefixing the 
possessive particles, according to the prefix of the governing 



122 FORMS OF NOUNS. 

noun, to the first or inflected dative form, and is employed to 
express of in the sense of belonging to. Thus : — 



Umfazi wase-Rini ; 
Amahashe ase-Bira; 
Izinto sasemhlabeni : 



A woman of Graham's Town. 
Horses of the Beka. 
Things of the earth. 



For the use of s in these and some of the following forms, see §53, I. 

121. The second compound form is derived from the in- 
flected dative, by prefixing the particle nga, and expresses 
about, near, to, against, towards, and the like. In some 
cases, this is only a more emphatic form of the principal one. 
Thus :— 



Uhleli w£flsendhlwini ; 
Bekangela w^asezulwini ; 
Misa imida ??g«sentabeni ; 
Xa ebehleli w^asekutyeni : 
Seninawo urnfuno wenu ngw 
sebun^cweleni. 



He is sitting near the house. 
Looking towards heaven. 
Set bounds about the mount. 
As he sat at meat. 
Ye have your fruit unto holi- 
ness. 






122. The third compound form is derived from the prece- 
ding one, by prefixing the possessive particles, according to 
the prefix of the governing noun, when the sense becomes 
equivalent to round about. As : — 

Ilizwe fa«£ase-Bira : The country round about the Beka. 

123. The fourth compound form is derived from the 
inflected dative, by prefixing the particle njenga, and ex- 
presses the comparative sense of like, or as, in addition to 
the full meaning of the principal form. Thus: — 



NjengasemdiX\z\\\\ ubuso bufana 

nobuso : 
Ku?y'e??gasemzini wako ; 



As in water face answereth to 

face. 
It is as (far as) to your place. 



COMPOUND PREFIXTTAL DATIVE FOEMS. 

124*. 'The fifth compound form is derived from the second 
or prefixual dative form, by prefixing the possessive particle 
which corresponds to the prefix of the governing noun, and 
expresses the same meaning as the first compound form. 
Thus :— 

Umntu waku-Kama: A man belonging to Kama. 

Abafazi fcakum-Hala ; Women belonging to Umhala. 

Iremante //akwaba-Heyideni ; Churches of the Gentiles. 



COMPOUND FORMS. 123 

125. The sixth compound form is derived, by prefixing 
nga to the second dative, and has the same signification as 
the second compound form. Thus : — 



Kube bubunqino Mgakuba-Heyiden 



That it should be a testimony against 

the Gentiles. 
When I look towards the men's side. 



Ndakukangela ngakwicala elinama- 
doda ; 

126. The seventh compound form is derived from the 
preceding one, in the same manner as the third compound 
form is derived from the second. Thus : — 

Indawo yangaku- Kama : The place round about Kama. 

127. The eighth compound form is derived from the pre- 
fixual dative, in the same manner as the fourth compound 
form is derived from the inflected dative. Thus : — 

Kwa «/e??gaku-Kama: Even as unto Kama. 
COMPOUND LOCATITE POEMS. 

128. The ninth compound form is derived from the loca- 
tive, by prefixing the possessive particle which corresponds 
to the prefix of the governing noun, and expresses the sense 
of belonging to the place or country of the person whom the 
noun represents. Thus: — 



Abantu Jakwa-Kama ; 
Inkosana zakwa-Yuda ; 
Ilizwe /akwa-Zabuloni : 



People of Kama's place. 
Princes of Judah. 
The land of Zabulon. 



129. The tenth compound form is derived from the locative, 
by prefixing the particle nga, and expresses the meaning of 
near, about, towards, the place or country of the person 
represented by the noun. Thus : — 



Ndasondela rcgakwa-Gcaleka ; 
Ndaza ndabekela ragakwa-Ngqika ; 



I drew near to the country of Galeka. 
Then I made towards the country of 
Gaika. 



130. The eleventh compound form is derived from the 
preceding one, by prefixing the possessive particle corres- 
ponding to the prefix of the governing noun, which increas- 
es the meaning to round about. Thus :— 



124 



FORMS OF NOUNS. 



Ndahamba pakati kwemizi yanga- 
kwa-Kama : 



I went amongst the places round 
bout Kama's. 



131. The twelfth compound form is derived from the loca- 
tive by prefixing njenga, in the same manner, and with the 
same force, as in the fourth compound form. Thus : — 



Kwijengakvrn- Kama 



It is as (far as) to Kama's. 



COMPOUND VOCATIVE EOEM. 



132. The thirteenth compound form is derived from the 
vocative, by affixing the particle ndini, which renders the 
mode of address more direct and emphatic. Thus : — ■ 



Sizukulwanattrfi/i/ ; 
Zihanahanisi«^«i ; 
Yiz' apa, Miondini ; 
Uya kuhlala futi kangakana- 
nina, Litongora«c?i»i; 



Ye generation ! 
Ye hypocrites! 
Come hither, you fellow ! 
How long wilt thou sleep, O slug- 
gard? 



Tabula?' view of the Forms of Nouns. 

133. The following table gives the several forms of Kafir 
nouns at one view, and will further exemplify the above 
rules and remarks. It must be borne in mind, that the 
possessive forms, as well as such compound forms as com- 
mence with a possessive particle, vary their initial 
letters according to the prefix of the governing noun. In 
the table which follows, they have been formed on the sup- 
position of a governing noun of the first species, singular 
number. 



FORMS OF NOUNS. 



125 







g 


+a 




O 











C 




+3 




c 


.9 ■ 

"si 




EC 

r3 


S3 

bD 

3 


.a 

1 


Is 

-a 

fcJD 

3 






















"3 












'3 


£ 

.^ 


3 








,0 




3 


<u 


1.® 


3 




"0 


=3 


a 


c3 
faD 

3 




ca 
faD 

c 


3 


5 


<D 






pM 





T3 

3 

<=> 2 * 

■B 3 Pi 



OS 



■a.g 

CD S3 



o 

0) 

to 

I 



tS] 



S.g boS bo.2. 



a g g 



.0 g £ w> a 

^ fcC o bc.£ 

^g g 1=1 g Pi 



I J 

|i 



(U b. ri 03 <D 

•g £ 5 S 3 £S 

l~[ N c3 <u o> C> 

ffl t3 c "' S ^ 

t- C 3 C3 K C3' 

S3 0! co c 3 H 

S SfiSfl l 



o 






S PI P 



<3 

s s 

£ c3 _ 



S p 
So.® 

p p 



I 111 



.5 .p 

3 .g ^ ^ 'S 

'I o I g- Sp S 

r^ 3 rt C~ O 3 

1 &§.2V£l? 



X 



'S - 1 ^ 



O O M P 

J^ P "" 



g "Pj 
o 

P 



© Pi <3 „, 

a £ g p" 



3} 

.ss 

pq o 



5 s b <u ■ 

& s § 1 1 

p? 1IP § -I 





pq 



.8 a 

•Pi ■ cq P £f 

^7 bC © &£.£, 

•j a a a a 



.= 2 °3 



a re 
P W 



M 






3 far, 

-* 3 

ca cc 

5 fafj g 



si 

3 

il 



5H * 

p a 



c3 

^ £3 Pj a « 

«u g I W bid , ^ fcjo 
oj a ca 






) a rt a o t 
rk> M S° ^ § 



O bJD. 






T3 ,3 

fa ^ H &h 



■*= -3 

t3 > "fab 



• — . _. CD •—> 

fa t/J C« C^ 



J= -3 S « 
c ? o fe 



o 



w 



« £ ^ 



a ^^^ 

• i-< m a oq 



a> "-£ a a 

s a §0 



"3 ? 

05 fe -fV 



« a r 9 « p 



126 OF THE ADJECTIVES. 

OF THE ADJECTIVES. 

134. Adjectives are distinguished by separable prefixes, 
each root being capable of receiving as many different 
prefixes, in the course of grammatical government, as there 
are prefixes of nouns. 

The form of the prefix, in any given instance, depends 
on the prefix of the governing noun. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

135. The prefixes of adjectives are composed of those 
forms of the relative pronoun, and present indicative pre- 
fixes of the substantive verb, which correspond to the 
species and number of the governing noun. But some of 
the prefixes of the substantive verb, in this usage, some- 
times take the epenthetic letters m and n ; and hence, 
adjectives may be conveniently distributed into three classes, 
according to the use or disuse of these. 

1. The first class includes all adjectives, before whose 
roots m or n is used, according to the prefix, in those cases 
where epenthetic letters are allowed. 

2. The second class comprises those with which m is used 
in all such cases. 

3. The third class contains such adjectives as do not use 
the epenthetic letters with any of their prefixes. 

136. Adjectival roots of the first and second classes, take 
the epenthetic letters m and n, in connexion with some of 
the prefixes of the substantive verb, according to the fol- 
lowing rules : — 

1. The verbal prefixes which take these epenthetic letters, 
are those which have been derived from such nominal prefixes 
as include m or n in their composition. In this usage, there- 
fore, the prefix is simply lengthened in the process of deri- 
vation ; either on account of the coalition of the preceding 
vowel with the relative pronoun, as is the case with some 
of these prefixes ; or in order to distingush more clearly the 
species of the noun referred to by the adjective, as is the 
case with others, Compare § 264 with Table in § 304. 






CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 127 

2. The situation of the epenthetic letters, depends upon 
the manner in which the verbal prefixes have their deriva- 
tion. Those which are derived from the initial vowel of the 
nominal prefixes, take their epenthetic letters after them ; 
but those which are derived from the final vowel, take it 
before them. 

3. The difference between the first and second classes of 
adjectives is this, that the verbal prefixes corresponding to 
singular and plural nouns of the third species, and to plural 
nouns of the fifth species, are derived from in and izin in the 
former class, and from izim or im in the latter. Accordingly, 
the first class takes n as the epenthetic letter, and the 
second m. 

137. The letters m and n when initial in an adjectival root, 
must not be confounded with epenthetic letters, but the 
whole root, of which either of them thus forms an integral 
part, must be treated like others of the same class to which 
it belongs. 

1. Adjectival roots commencing with ?n, are always of the 
third class : as, ?nhZope, mnandi, msulwa, muncu, mnyama, 
mdaka. 

2. Those which commence with n, are either of the first 
class; as, ninzi, ncinane, ?wi: 60 or of the third-, as, nsima, 
nzulu, ngcwele, 

138. An example of an adjective in each class will afford 
the best illustration of the preceding observations. The 
species and numbers refer to the supposed governing noun : — 



60 Due regard does not appear to 
have been paid to the insertion of the 
epenthetic n, before adjectival roots 
commencing with n, and belonging to 
the first class. Analogy, however, 
requires its use in such circumstances, 
as well as in others. Hence ninzi, 
ncinane, fyc, when referring to nouns 
of the third species, singular and plu- 
ral, or to nouns of the fifth species, 



plural, should be written as in the 
following examples : — into enncinane ; 
izinto ezinncinane ; intsapo ezinninzi. 
By this means, also, the form keeps up 
a distinction between adjectives of the 
fourth species, plural, and those of 
the third or fifth species plural : thus 
izitya ezincinane - t but izindhlu ezinnci- 
nane. 



128 



CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 





FIRST 


CLASS. 


SECOND 


CLASS. 


TJITHD 


CLASS. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


1 


owkulu 


«5rtkiilu 


ombi 


ababi 


oborrmi 


ababomva 


2 


elikuhi 


amakulu 


elibi 


amabi 


elibomvu 


abomvu 


3 


enkulu 


ezinkv\hi 


enibi 


ezimbi 


ebomvu 


ezibomvu 


4 


esikvlu. 


ezikulu 


esibi 


ezibi 


esibomwL 


ezibomwL 


5 


olukulu 


ezinlnAu 


olubi 


ezimbi \ 


olubomva 


f^ibomvu 


6 


onikxilii 


emikuhi 


oinbi 


e??iibi 


obomvu 


<?bonivu 


7 


ob ukixlu 




obubi 




obubomvu. 




8 


okukahl 


i 


o/eubi 


1 


ofaibomvu 





INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 

139. The following adjectives, which may be termed, from 
the nature of their signification, indefinite adjectives, require 
a more particular notice. Some of them, moreover, vary in 
the formation of their prefixes from the usual mode. 

140. Nye belongs to the first class of adjectives, and 
expresses the indefinite sense of one, other, another, Qc. 
Thus:— 



Sasilumkile cslmje isihlanu sazo, sati 
esinye isihlanu sasimatile; 

Omnye waya entsimini yake, omnye 
waya entengweni yake ; 

Jlanga alisayi kubabalela, n&bunyc 
ubuskushu; 



And (the one) five of them were wise, 
and (the other) five were foolish. 

One went to his farm, another to his 
merchandise. 

The sun shall not light on them, nor 
any heat. 



141. Mbi expresses another, other, §c., in the sense of 
" a different one ;" and takes for its prefixes the several 
euphonic letters, according to the prefix of the governing 
noun. Thus : — 



SPECIES. 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 



SING. 

ivumbi 

//mbi 

7/imbi 

simbi 

Jumbi 

ivumbi 



PLUR. 

Iambi 

^rambi 

zimbi 

zimbi 

zimbi 

i/imbi 



bumbi 

faimbi 



1. The forms which commence with the superadded con- 



INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 



129 



sonants w and y (§ 54), sometimes drop them, umbi, imbi, 
and ambi, being heard for wumbi, yimbi, and wambi. 

2. The following examples will illustrate the usual force 
of this adjective: — 



Ninomninawe wumbi na.? 
Walilala imihla yasixenxe yimbi; 
Awuko 'myalelo wumbi umkuiu kule ; 

Nize nendele hxuvum bi ; 
Sivela kwiyimbi (§308, 6) indawo ; 
Ngokuba babebeva beteta wgazimbi i- 
lwimi ; 



Have ye another brother ? 

He stayed yet other seven days. 

There is none other commandment 

greater than these. 
That ye should be married to another. 
We come from quite a different place. 
For they heai-d them speak -with (o- 

ther) tongues. 



3. The relative pronoun and substantive verb, occasion- 
ally precede this adjective for the sake of emphasis : as, 



Ukufana ofo/kumbi 
lsidalwa es/simbi ; 



Another likeness. 
Anv other creature. 



142. Tile expresses certain, as used in the phrase " a 
certain one," and belongs to the third class of adjectives. 
Thus : — 



Desiring a certain thing of him. 
Certain persons who went out from us. 
If he finds any of this way. 



Ecela into etile kuye ; 
Abantu abatile abapuma kuti ; 
Ukuba uyafumana abatile abaneli- 
siko ; 

143. Onke expresses all, every, and the like ; and takes 
for its prefixes the several euphonic letters, according to the 
form of the governing word. Thus : — 



PERSON. 


SPECIES. 


SIX GEL API. 


PLERAL. 




I 






sonke 




II 






;<!Oiike 




III 


1 


«-onke 


&onke 






2 


Zonke 


onke (§ 54, 1, 


i) 




3 


yonke 


^onke 






4 


sonke 


^onke 






5 


Zonke, Zwonke 


^onke 






6 


iconke 


yonke 






7 


Z»onke 






8 


/I'onke, 


Jcwonke 





144. Ngalca, vgabana, ngakanana, express so, such, so 

R 



130 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES, 

great, so much, according to the construction, and belong 
to the third class of adjectives. As : — 



Amandhla angaJcanana ; 
Andifumananga 'lukolo olungaka; 



Such power. 

I have not found so great faith. 



145. NgaJco expresses such as that, so great as that, and 
also belongs to the third class of adjectives. As : — 

For then shall be great tribulation, 



Ngokuba kuya kubako oko ubunzima 
obukulu, ekungazanga kubeko obu- 
Ttgafco kuselokwoku^aleka kwom- 
hlaba : 



such as was not since the beginning 
of the world. 



146. Nje "expresses so many, and belongs to the first 
class of adjectives. It is only used, however, in answer to 
a question, and always in reference to a number which is 
specified at the same time by the fingers. Thus: — 



Amahashe ebemangapina ? 
"Ehemanje ; 



How many horses were there ? 
There were so many. 



DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

147. The roots of adjectives are generally primitives. 
Some, however, are derived from verbs. Thus msulwa 7 
without blemish ; appears to come from sulwa, to be wiped ; 
tile any or certain ; from ti, to be so r de, long, &c. ; from 
da, to be distant. Ngcwele, pure, is the perfect verbal root 
ofngcwala, the obsolete primitive ofngcwalisa, to purify : and 
nene, true, bears the same relation to nyana, the obsolete 
primitive otnyanisa, to speak or act truly ; ny being changed 
into n, for the sake of greater euphony. 

Kafir adjectives are comparatively few in number, many of the adjectives of 
European languages being supplied in this, by certain usages of the noun and 
verb. See §§ 500-501 and 570. 

DIMINUTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

148. Diminutive adjectives are formed by affixing ana or 
azana to their roots, according to the character of the gov- 
erning noun, in the same manner as has already been de- 
scribed in the formation of diminutive nouns, §§ 87 and 88» 



NUMERALS. 



131 



Thus : — hilwana from hulu ; mhlotshana from mlilope ; bo- 
mvana and bomvasana from bomvu. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES, 



149. Adjectives have no variations of form for the compa- 
rative and superlative degrees. To express these, certain 
syntactical usages are adopted, according to §§ 451 and 
573. 

Diminution of quality is effected by affixing the particle ra 
to the adjectival root, which corresponds to the English 
termination ish, or to the word rather. Thus : — 



Lonto ibomvura ; 
Iqiya emnyamara 



That thing is reddish. 

A blackish or purple handkerchief. 



NUMERALS. 



150. Kafir numerals are expressed partly by adjectives, 
and partly by nouns. They are as follow: — 



ADJECT. 




NOUNS. 


MEANING 


nye 


isinye 






one 


bird 


isibini 






two 


tatu 


isitatu 






three 


ne 


isine 






four 


hlanu 


isihlanu 






five 


taudatu 


isitandatu 






six 


xenxe 


isixenxe 






seven 


mboxo 


isimboxo, 


isibozo, 


isipohlorigo 


eight 




itoba, isitoba, umealiatiso 


nine 




ishumi, isishumi, 


ilinci 


ten 




ikulu 






hundred 




iwaka 






thousand 



The tens, hundreds, and thousands, are sometimes used 
in their reduplicated forms, in order to express an unknown 
or uncountable number. Thus: — 



Amashumishumi ; 
Amakulukulu ; 
Amawakawaka ; 



Tens upon tens. 
Hundreds upon hundreds. 
Thousands upon thousands. 



151. The numeral adjectives take their prefixes accor- 
ding to the class to which they belong. 



132 NUMERALS. 

1. Nye, lata, ne, hlanu, and tandatu, belong to the first 
class. 

But nye usually omits the relative pronoun of the regular 
adjectival prefixes, in order to distinguish its use as a nu- 
meral, from that noticed above in § 140. Thus : 

Species 1. — unmye 
2. — //nye 
3. — innje 
4. — sinje 
5. — luixye 
6. — itmnye 
7. — bunje 
8. — kunje 

2. Bini belongs to the second class of adjectives. 

3. Xenxe, and mboxo, belong to the third class. 

152. The numeral nouns belong to those species to which 
their prefixes assign them, and follow all their analogies. 

In the possessive form, they are employed to express 
ordinals : as, 



Jculo lesihlanu ; 
JncUilu yeshumi ; 
Inncwadi yesibini ; 
Umhla Tvesiiie : 



The hymn of five, i. e. the fifth hymn. 



The house of ten, i. e. the tenth house. 
The book of two, i. e. the second book. 
The day of four, i. e. the fourth day. 

153. The Kafir mode of counting is rather complex, 
arising out of its very minuteness. As there are no numerals 
for expressing a combination of tens, as twenty, thirty, forty, 
&c. ; or of tens and units, as eleven, twelve, thirteen, &c. ; 
one is obliged to say, two tens, three tens, four tens, §c. ; 
in the former case ; and ten which is with one, two, three, 
Sfc. ; two tens which are with one, two, three, Sfc. ; in the 
latter. So likewise with the hundreds and thousands. 

The units are expressed by the adjectives, or by nouns 
usedijas such (§ 500 ), when employed alone with a govern- 
ing noun. But as finals in a numeral combination, they 
may be expressed either by the adjectives or nouns, the for- 
mer taking the prefix which corresponds to the noun refer- 
red to by the whole number. The following examples will 
illustrate J;he general method of counting : — 



NUMERALS. 



133 



Ihashe linye ; 

Abantu abane ; 

Izouka ezisixenxe ; 

Abaposile abalishumi elinamnye ; 

Iniinyaka eliskunii elinamitatu ; 

Izizukulwana ezilishumi elinesine ; 

Inkomo eziinashmni mabini ; 

Izitya ezmgamasbumi mane ; 

Amabashe amashunii mablanu ana- 
liny e ; 

Namashumi asixenxe abantwana ; 

Aniankazana angamashunii amboxo 
anesitandatu ; 

Amadoda alikulu ; 

Abafazi abalikulu elinesbumi ; 

Intsapo ezimakulu amatatu, anama- 
shumi mablanu ananklanu ; 

Inkabi ezingamawaka mane ; 

Inkomo ezingamawaka asibozo, ana- 
makulu axenxe, anamasbumi ma- 
bini ananne ; 

Amatandatu amakulu aniawaka ama- 
doda ; 

Ishumi lamawaka ; 

Ikulu lamawaka ; 

Iwaka lamawaka ; 

Iculo lesbumi elinesinye ; 

Inncwadi yesbumi elinesixenxe ; 

Isiqendu samasbumi mane anesitoba; 

Isabluko samawaka mablanu, anama- 
kulu asibozo ; 



One borse. 
Four persons. 
Seven loaves. 
Tbe eleven apostles. 
Tbirteen years. 
Fourteen generations. 
Twenty cattle. 
Forty baskets. 
Fifty one borses. 

And seventy cbildren. 
Eigbty six women. 

A bundred men. 

A bundred and ten women. 

Tbree bundred, and fifty five cbil- 
dren. 

Four tbousand oxen. 

Eigbt thousand, seven bundred, and 
twenty four bead of cattle. 

Six bundred thousand men. 

Ten tbousand. 
One hundred tbousand. 
A million. 
Tbe eleventh hymn. 
The seventeenth book. 
Tbe forty ninth section. 
The five thousand and eighth hun- 
dredth division. 



1. Ilinci, ten, is only used in connexion with the hundreds 
and thousands : as, 



Ikulu elinelinci ; 
Ikulu elinamanci matatu ; 
Amawaka alikulu linamanci mane a- 
namawaka mane ; 



A hundred and ten. 
A hundred and thirty. 
A bundred and forty and four thou- 
sand. 



2. There is a periphrastic mode of expressing eight, and 
nine, sometimes heard in the colloquial style, as in the fol- 
lowing examples : — 



\u 



MULTIPLICATIVES. 



Ishumi elinetoba 'mnwe 'mnye ; 
Ishumi elinetoba 'minwe mibini ; 



Ten which is with the bending — one 

finger ; i. e. nineteen. 
Ten which is with the bending — two 

fingers ; i. e. eighteen. 



MXTLTIPLICATIYES. 

154. Numeral adjectives become multiplicatives, by pre- 
fixing the initial syllable of the indefinite adjective onJce, 
according to the form of the governing noun or pronoun, 
their initial vowel being at the same time dropped, or, in 
the case of those which correspond to plural nouns of the 
third and fifth species, their whole prefix, with the excep- 
tion of the epenthetic letter. Thus : — ■ 

We both, all three, all four, 

all five, &c. 
Ye both, all three, all four, 

all five, &c. 
All two, all three, all four, all 

five, &c., persons. 
AH two, all three, all four, all 

five, &c, horses. 
All two, all three, all four, all 

five, &c, houses. 
All two, all three, all four, all 

five, &c, vessels. 
All two, all three, all four, all 

five, &c, rods. 
All tw r o, all three, all four, all 

five, &c, trees. 



First per son^Flur. — Tina sobabini, sobatatu, 

sobane, sobahlanu, &c. 
Second pers. Plur. — Nina wobabini, ?*obatatu, 

raobane, wobahlanu, &c. 
SPECIES 1. Plur. — Ab^ntu Jobabini, Jobata- 

tu, Jobane, Jobahlanu, &c. 
SPECIES 2. Plur. — Amahashe ornabini, oraa- 

tatu, omane, omahlanu, &c. 
Species 3. Plur. — Izindhlu zombini, sontatu, 

zonne, zonklanu, &c. 
Species 4</Plur. — Izitya *zozibmi, zozitatu, 

zozhie, zozihlanu, &c. 
SPECIES 5. Plur. — Izinti zombini, zontatu, 

zorme, zonklanu, &c. 
SPECIES 6. Plur. — Imiti r/omibmi, yomitatu, 

a/omine, yomihlanu, &c. 



1. The following examples will illustrate the use of these 
forms : — 



Silapa nje sobatatu j 

Ndiyaniyala nobabini j 

Ayete amehlo abo bobabini avulwa ; 

Zowa zombini emnxunyeni : 

Etabata izonka zozixenxe ; 

Intshuntshe ebukali isika ngamacala 

ornabini ; 
Izilo zone zibe zinamapiko matandatu j 



We are all three here. 

I charge you both. 

And the eyes of both were opened. 

Both shall fall into the ditch. 

Taking the ( all ) seven loaves. 

A sharp two-edged sword. 

The four beasts had each six wings. 



2c Numeral adjectives of the seventh and eighth species, 



ELISION OF ADJECTIVAL PREFIXES. 135 



may also be used as multiplicatives, according to the above 
rule, but the latter usually omit the initial k for the sake 
of euphony. Thus : — 



Ubuso bobutatu; 

Kgokuba okubini kuya kuba nguna- 



All three faces. 

For both, shall be everlasting. 



155. Numeral nouns become multiplicatives in the same 
manner as the adjectives. The following examples will be a 
sufficient illustration. 



Inkwenkwezi zosixenxe zingamangelosi 

eremente zosixenxe ; 
Izilo zone, nabadala bomashumi mabini 

anabane ; 
Groduka nazo inncwadi zako, zositoba ; 



The seven stars are the angels of the 

seven churches. 
The four beasts, and four and twenty 

elders. 
Take home your books, all nine. 



ELISION OF ADJECTIVAL PREFIXES. 

156. After the substantive and other verbs, the relative 
pronoun of the adjectival prefixes is usually dropped, being 
unnecessary under such circumstances to establish a gram- 
matical connexion. In all those cases, also, where the rela- 
tive coalesces with the verbal prefix, this suffers elision 
with it; so that, in adjectives of the first and second classes, 
it will sometimes happen that the epenthetic letter of the 
prefix alone remains, whilst in adjectives of the third class, 
the whole prefix will in some cases be elided. The following 
examples will afford the best illustration of these remarks : — 

1. Where the whole prefix is elided, in which case the 
adjective will generally be of the third class : — 



Into irara ; 
Umti unzima 3 
Amanzi e^bommx ; 
Iinilainbo \banzii 



The thing is bitter. 
The tree is heavy. 
The water is red. 
The rivers are wide. 



2. Where the prefix is elided with the exception of the 
epenthetic letter, in which case the adjective may be of the 
first or second class : — - 



Umfazi umde ; 
Into imbi ; 
Intombi vnkU j 
Umvuzo woba *mJculu\ 



The woman is tall. 
The thing is bad. 
The girl is pretty. 
The reward will be great* 



136 ELISION OF ADJECTIVAL PREFIXES. 



3. Where the relative pronoun alone is elided, when 
the adjective may be of either class : — 

Ihaslie beMUmnyama ; 
Isitya sSLsincinane ; 
Ukuba abenze bangcwele ; 



Innxowa ezingabi zindala ; 
Inkosi zalo ziba zinninzi ; 
Ubumnyama boba bukulu ; 
Amabashe ebemanhizi ; 
Imilambo engemincinane j 

4. Sometimes, however, the verbal prefix is omitted as 
well as the relative pronoun, even in those cases where they 
do not coalesce together : as, 



The borse was black. 
The basket was little. 
To make them holy. 
Bags which become not old. 
The princes thereof are many. 
The darkness will be great. 
The horses were many. 
Rivers which are not small. 



Isono sam sikulu ; 

Abantu bahda ; 

Izitya zane ; 

Ilangaliya kwenziwa 'mnyama ; 



My sin is great. 
The people are few. 
The baskets were four. 
The sun shall be darkened. 



i. This indeed is the usual rule with regard to the pre- 
fixes of the first and second classes of adjectives, which 
correspond to plural nouns of the third andjifth species, 
their epenthetic letters being alone retained, as in the se- 
cond set of the above examples. Thus : — 

Inkabi bezinkle ; The oxen were fine. 

Imazi zzmbini ; The cows were two. 

Intsapo zinde : The children are tall. 

ii. But adjectives of the first and second classes, which 
correspond to plural nouns of the second and sixth species, 
never drop their verbal prefixes in consequence of the me- 
dial situation of their epenthetic letter, but only suffer the 
elision of the relative pronoun. When, however, the present, 
Indicative, of the substantive verb is required with these 
forms of the adjective, that is often omitted. Thus : — 






Lamaznnba mabi ; 
Imilambo miladu ; 



This corn (is) bad. 
The rivers (are) great. 



5. After the substantive verb, the prefixes of adjectives 
occasionally take the euphonic letters before them, instead 
of suffering elision, for the sake of emphasis or precision. 

As :— 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 



137 



Elusangweni lwetempile oluloluhle : At the Beautiful gate of the temple. 

Ngomhla wokupela, lowo ongomkulu Iu the last clay, that great one of the 

womtendeleko ; feast. 

^ xci bxmaahunaajigamaJilamtj na- Rulers of fifties and rulers of tens. 

bapati baniashumi suigamaaye ; 

157. The prefixes of numeral adjectives are very com- 
monly elided, according to the preceding rules, after nouns. 
Other kinds of adjectives, likewise, occasionally observe the 
same usage. Thus : — 



Unmtu 'mnije ; 
Izwi 'nye ; 
Into 'tmye ; 
Inkliziyo 'mbmi ; 
Intsuku 'ntafn ; 
Amaahami mabinl 
Abantu bane ; 
Izandhla zihlanu ; 
Imihlali mibi ; 
Iniinyoka mittinzi ; 



One person. 
One word. 
One thing. 
Two hearts. 
Three days. 
Two tens. 
Four persons. 
Fire hands. 
Evil rejoicings. 
Many years. 



158. When adjectives are used with nouns which are 
preceded by a demonstrative pronoun, or by a demonstrative 
personal pronoun, the relative pronoun of their prefixes is 
often omitted. Thus: — 



Ezizaki'.vo zikulu ; 
Obububi bukulu ; 
Lonto ingcivele ; 
Eyona 'nto inkulu ; 



These great buildings. 
This great wickedness. 
That holy thing. 
The chief thing. 



OF THE PRONOUNS. 

159. Kafir pronouns are of three principal kinds, namely, 
Demonstrative, Personal, and Relative. 

X. B. There are also Interrogative pronouns : but for these see § 333. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PEOXOUXS. 

160. The demonstrative pronouns, expressing this and 
tkat t with their plurals these and those, vary according to 

s 



138 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



the species and number of the nouns to which they refer. 
The forms which express that and those, are two or more 
in each species and number. Those which terminate in ya, 
refer to objects at a greater distance, and the others to ob- 
jects at a less. 

CLASSIFICATION OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

161. Demonstrative pronouns are arranged, according to 
their species and number, as follow: — 



1st. species. 


2nd. species. 


3 ED. SPECIES. 


4TII. SPECIES. 


SIXG. 


PLT7E. 


SING-. 


PITER. 


SING. 


PIXE. 


SIXG. 


PLUE. 


lo 


aba 


eli 


la 


le 


ezi 


esi 


ezi 


lowaya |abaya 


eliya 


lawaya 


leyaya 


eziva 


esiya 


eziya 


lowo 


abo 


elo 


lawo 


leyo 


ezo 


eso 


ezo 


Iowa 




ela 


lawa 


leya 


eza 


esa 


eza 


lo 






lo 


lo' 








la 






la 


la 








5tii. spec 


6tii. species. 


7th. 8th. 
spec spec 


SIGNIFICATION. 










SIXG-. 1 PIXB. 


SIXG. 1 PLUS. 


! 


SINC 


rTLAE. 


PLrEAL. 


olu 


?zi lo |le 


oba 


oku 


this 




those 


omya 


3ziya 


lowaya leyaya 


obuya 


okuya 


that 


there 


those there 


olo 


3ZO 


lowo leyo 


obo 


oho 


that 




those 


ola 


?za 


Iowa leva 


oba 


okwa 


that 




those 




lo llo 






that 




those " 




|la U 




that 




those 



DERIVATION OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

162. The demonstrative pronouns which express this and 
these, appear to be derived from the corresponding prefixes 
of nouns in the following manner : — 

1. Those which correspond to the monosyllabic prefixes, 
reject the final m and n, and then take the remaining vowel, 
to which, after changing u into o, and i into e, the epen- 
thetic letter / is prefixed : as, lo from urn, and le from irn 
or in, 

2, Those which correspond to the polysyllabic prefixes, 
simply change their initial vowel as above, except in the 
case of the plural numbers of the third and fifth species^ 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 139 

which reject the final m or n as well : thus, ell from ill, olu 
from ulu, est from izim or izhi. 

i. But the vowel a does not suffer mutation; and hence, 
aha is of the same form as the corresponding nominal prefix. 

ii. The plurals, also, of the second and sixth species, re- 
ject the m of the nominal prefixes together with the preced- 
ing vowel, and then observe the same rule as those pronouns 
which are derived from the monosyllabic prefixes : as, la 
from ama } and le from imi. 

163. The demonstrative pronouns which express that there 
and those there, are derived from the preceding ones, by af- 
fixing the particle ya : as, eliya from ell, oluya from olu, 
abaya from aha. 

But the monosyllabic pronouns insert their possessive par- 
ticles before the ya : as, lowaya from lo, ley ay a from le. 

164. The demonstrative pronouns which are employed to 
express simply that and those, are merely different contrac- 
tions of the last: as, lowo and Iowa from loicaya, and lo 
and la, again, from lowo and Iowa. (§ 59, 1.) 

FORMS OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
PRINCIPAL FORMS. 

165. Demonstrative pronouns have nine principal forms, 
namely, the Simple form, the Possessive, Dative, Locative, 
Causal, Instrumental, Conjunctive, and two Comparative 
forms. Their several significations are the same as those of 
the corresponding forms of nouns. The simple form of each 
demonstrative pronoun has been already given in the above 
table § 161. The remaining forms are derived from that, 
in the following manner : — 

1. The possessive form is derived by prefixing the proper 
possessive particle. If the simple form commences with a 
vowel, coalition will take place according to § 37, 3. 

2. The dative form is derived by prefixing ku. If the 
simple form commences with a vowel, the final u ofku is gen- 
erally changed into w. 

3. The locative form is only used with those demonstra- 



140 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, 



tive pronouns, which may represent nouns that are the 
names of persons. It is derived by prefixing kiva. 

4. The causal form is derived by prefixing the euphonic 
letters, or their substitutes, according to the follow 
formulas: — 



mu 







1st. species. 


2lTD. SPECIES. 


3ed. species. 




sing. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PLTTE. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


Simple 
Causal 


lo 
ngitlo 


aba 
ra^aba 


eli 
Zeli 


la 
ngala, 


le 
yUe 


ezi 
zezi 


4th. spec. 


5th. species 


6th. species. 


7th. 

SPEC. 


8th. 
spec. 


sing. 


PLUE 


sing. 


PLI T E. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


esi 
sesi 


ezi 
zezi 


olu 
Zolu 


ezi 
zezi 


lo 
ngu\o 


le 
pie 


obu 
6obu 


oku 
/joku 



5. The instrumental form is derived by prefixing nga ; 
the conjunctive form, by prefixing na ; the first comparative 
form, by prefixing nganga ; and the second comparative form, 
by prefixing njenga. In all these forms, if the simple form 
commences with a vowel, coalition takes place according to 
§ 37, 3. 

COMPOUND IOEMS, 

166. Demonstrative pronouns have eight compound forms, 
namely, four compound dative forms, and four compound 
locative forms. Their significations are the same in gene- 
ral as those of the corresponding forms of nouns. Their 
derivation is as follows : — 

1. The first compound form is derived from the dative, 
by prefixing the proper possessive particle. 

2. The second is derived from the same principal form, by 
prefixing nga. 

3. The third is derived from the preceding compound 
form, by prefixing the proper possessive particle. 

4. The fourth is derived by prefixing njenga to the dative 
form. 

5. The fifth compound form is derived from the locative, 
by prefixing the proper possessive particle. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



141 



6. The sixth prefixes nga to the same principal form. 

7. The seventh prefixes the proper possessive particle to 
the preceding compound form. 

8. The eighth prefixes njenga to the locative form. 

Examples. 



1. Emnye tt'akvcababancinane ; 

2. Ndisolulela ?2gakwezonto zi- 

ngapambili ; 

3. Indawo yangakula.mn.t\i j 

4. Ewa njengokulowo ; 

5. Abantu iakwalowo ; 

6. Siyahlala wijakwalowo ; 

7. DizTre langakxralo-wo ; 



8. Ivwijengakwaloxro ; 
T ah ul a t Yi e w 



One of these little ones. 
Reaching forth, unto those things 

which are before. 
The place round about that man. 
Even as unto that one. 
The people of that one's place. 
We live near that one's place. 
The country round about that 

one's place. 
It is as (far as) to that one's place. 



of t ll t 
strative P 



F o r m s 

r o n o u n s 



of 



Be 



m o n- 



167. The following table gives the several forms of de- 
monstrative pronouns at one view, according as they com- 
mence with /, a, e, or o. Those forms which commence 
with a possessive particle refer to a supposed governing 
noun of the first species, singular number. 



i hi s 

fc < s 

Ph m o 


o 


TIEST SPECIES. 


EIETH SPECIES. 


SIXGITLAB. (1) 


PLrEAI. (a) 


Sm&TTLAB,.(oJ 


PLTJEAI. (e) 


Simple 




lo 


aba 


olu 


ezi 


Possess. 




walo 


imba 


aoolu 


zt'ezi 


Dative 




kulo 


kwaba 


kwolu 


kwezi 




1st 


wakulo 


coakwaba 


t&akwolu 


wakwezi 




2nd 


ngakulo 


ngakwaba 


ngakwolu 


ngakwezi 




3rd 


wangakulo 


wangakwaba 


wangakwolu 


zcangakwezi 




4th 


njengakulo 


njengakvraba • 


njengakvvolu 


njengakvrezi 


Locative 


5th 

6th 
7th 
8th 


kwalo 
wakwalo 

ngakwalo 

«-angakv.*alo 
njengakwalo 








Causal 




ngulo 


ngaba 


lolu 


zezi 


Instriuii. 




ngalo 


ugaba 


ngolu 


ngezi 


Coujimc. 




nalo 


nab a 


nolu 


nezi 


1st. Corn. 




ngangalo 


ngangaba 


ngaagolu 


ngangezi 


2nd. Com. 


njeiigalo 


njeugaba 


njengolu 


njengezi 



142 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



1G8. When 'the demonstrative pronouns precede nouns 
and adjectives, the initial vowels of which are elided, they 
are used after the manner of prefixes. Thus : — 

Zomntu, this person : 
Lowamatu, that person : 
Elih&she, this horse : 
Oteapo, this child : 
O&wbomi, this life ; 

^&ababini 



^iobancinane . 



Jbahmitu, these persons. 

Jbob&ntu, those persons. 

Zamahashe, these horses. 

.Ezantsapo, these cliildren. 

Okokutya, that food, 
these two. 
those little ones. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



169. Personal pronouns have three persons. But those 
of the third person vary in form, according to the species 
and number of the nouns for which they are used. 



CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

170. Personal pronouns are arranged, according to their 
person, species, and number, as follow : — 



rEBSOH" 


SPECIES 


[First 




Second 




Third 


1 




2 




3 




4 




5 




6 




fj 




7 


... 


8 



SINGTJLAE 

mina, I 
wena, thou 
yena, he, she 
lona, he, she, it 
yona, lie, she, it 
sona, he, she, it 
lona, he, she, it 
wona, it 

bona, 
kona, 



tina, we 
nma, you 
bona, they 
wona, they 
zona, they 
zona, they 
zona, they 
yona, 



it, they 
it, they 



DERIVATION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

171. Personal pronouns of the first and second persons, 
are derived by adding the termination na to the euphonic 
letters, or their substitutes, according to § 56, 2. The eu- 
phonic u, moreover, takes the vowel e before the na, and then 
passes into its consonantal sound according to the usual rule. 
Personal pronouns of the third person are derived from the 
demonstrative pronouns, by adding the termination na to 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 



143 



the final syllable of the first forms in the table, § 161, which 
are used for expressing that and those. But the final wo of 
lowo, first species, singular, is changed into ye for the sake 
of precision. The following comparative view will afford 
the best illustration of the above rule : — 







1st. species. 


2nd. species. 


3rd. species. 




SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PXTJR. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


Demon. 
Personal 


lowo 

yena 


abo 
bona 


elo 
Zona 


laivo 

ivona 


leyo 

yona 


ezo 
zona 


4tii. spec. 


5tii. g] 


?ECIES. 


6th. species. 


7th. 
spec. 


8th. 
spec. 


SING. 


plue 


SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


eso 
sons, 


ezo 
zona 


oh 
lona 


ezo 
zona 


lowo 

wona 


leyo 
yona 


olo 
bona 


oJco 
kona 



The change of ivo into ye is by no means an arbitrary one, y being one of the 
acknowledged substitutes of the euphonic letter w, and e being used for o, for 
the sake of precision. It will be seen from the next section that, in certain 
circumstances, Jc, another and more usual substitute of the same euphonic let- 
ter, is used instead of y. 



FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

172. The several forms of personal pronouns are the same 
in number and signification, as those of demonstrative pro- 
nouns. 

1. The simple form is distinguished by the termination na. 

In the derivation of the other forms, as well as in the prefixing of the eu- 
phonic letters under any circumstances, this termination is usually elided. 

The simple form is also used as a vocative, when required. 

2. The possessive form is derived from the simple form, 
abbreviated in the manner just stated, by prefixing the pro- 
per possessive particle. 

3. The locative form prefixes liwa. 

But the abbreviated simple forms of the first person, plural;, of the second 
person, both singular and plural; and of the third person, first species, singular; 
undergo mutation for the promotion of euphony or precision, in the formation 
of the possessive and locative forms, 



IU 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



The p 
and nu. 



The First person, plural, changes ti into tu 

The Second person, singular, ... we . . . ko 

plural, ... ni ... nu 

The Third pcrs. Spec. 1, sing. ... ye . . . ke 

sessive particles, moreover, change their final a into e, before 



4. The causal form is derived by prefixing the euphonic 
letters, or their substitutes, according to the following** 
formulas : — 



POEMS. 



Simple 
Causal 



PIEST PEESON 



SING. PLUR. 



mina Itina 
ndimi \siti 



SECOND PEESON 



wena 
nguwe 



nma 
nim 



THIRD PEESON. 


POEMS. 


1ST. SPECIES. 


2nd. SPECIES. 


3ed. species. 


SING-. 


PLUR. 


SING. I PLUR. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


Simple 
Causal 


yena 
nguje 


bona 
ngabo 


lona kvona 
Ulo mgawo 


yona 


zona 
zizo 


4th. SPEC. 


5th. si 


J ECIES. 


6th. species. 


7th. 

spec. 


8th. 
spec. 


SING-. 1 PLUR 


SING. 


PLUR. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


sona 
siso 


zona 
zizo 


lona 

lulo 


zona 
zizo 


wona 
nguwo 


yona 

gijo 


bona 
bubo 


kona 
huko 



173. The other principal forms, as well as the several 
compound forms, are derived in all respects like those of 
demonstrative pronouns which commence with /, and re- 
quire, therefore, no further illustration than that which is 
afforded by the following tabular view : — 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 



145 



zfi CO 
ft 

& 

O 

o 
PI 

P4 

o 

o 

ft 

02 



O C 

a -3 



« fcu 






&JD g, O g £ &J0 g 



^S 



J £b 



^id a 



g S-StS 



§>2 2 



rO O 












te 


a 


o 


|3 


m 


h) 


P4 


A 


m 




P4 





© 



P i & ' 



&&M 



,3 © 









CJD 



© 



p 3 



© 

3 £ 



£ 3 fc£ =3 2 © 



5 £ 



© 



c3 O 



© c3 



© 2 

II 



OS r^ 






S !> cz 



o 



is 



s © 



03 -t-= 

e £ £ 

£> JA ?• 

„ s s 

5 3 fl ri, 



§ .« 9? *a s5 



&c c; 



■+3 ' 

CO 
Pi 



i*i 



a 3 



PI 



°3 "3 "rt 

11° 






y g |P&"3 

3 1 |p » -g 



Hit I.|; 






c3 

CO 



CO v-> -3 -* 

•■H 03 rQ 3 

P^ SO H £■< 



fe CO O} Pn 



© M © 

■9 ° £ 

35 P^ Q 





5 S 




g|g. 






cu 


-+3 £ £ 


r-j 


gl^ 


3 






r3 O 
© CM 



& a 



o -a 

° 3 



O « 



.3 © 

§ o 



o ,- 



cS © 

C3 O 

03 <n 



© 


Ph 


ft 


© 


rG 


.3 


|f 


ft 


o 






c3 
ft 




'-> 






cc 




M 




5^ 


^ 


tin 


H 



146 



POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 



a> 

H 



c 

3- 
O 

c 
o 
u 

p* 

o 
> 



o 






P-. 

Ph 
3 
OS 

«3 

C 

o 

c 
o 
•- 
P-i 



B 13 

02 o 

s s 



P-. 
Cm 

o 






2 

O 



0) * 

H 5 



8 oo 

3 H 


kwami 

kwetu 

kwako 

kwenu 

kwake 

kwabo 

kwalo 

kwawo 


2 ° 

k^» S3 

cd cd 

^ M 





kwazo 

kwalo 

kwazo 

kwawo 

kwayo 

kwaoo 

kwako 


©^ 

H 02 
02 


SHJ^! & r!4 r£2 ^ £ >^ S3 02 S3 r-H S3 


2 © © © 

cd cd cd cd 

J^ rO rd ^ 


02 

H 

© 

=H 
QQ 


Ph 


S^^! Sr^rO ° £ >►» N m S3 ,2 S3 £ >^Q^t> 


02 


cd O cd © cd c3 cd 

•s ^ p £ £ ps £ 


© 

cd 


2 © 

c^cl 


c 

02 

rd 


o- " © 

S3 r-H S3 

cd cd cd 
£ £ £ 


Poo© 

cd cd cd cd 
£ £ £ £ 


02 

Q 

02 


pi 

Ph 


•3 H O rf O O -. 

d O cj o d d cj 

S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 




i 

s 


2 © 

c?§ 

S3 S3 


O 
~s. 

cd 

S3 


© o © 

S3 r-H S3 

cd cd cd 

S3 S3 S3 


Poo© 

cd cd cd cd 

S3 S3 S3 S3 


6 

03 


•d H O 2 O O 
o3 33 cd O cd cd cd 

J5 j$ j; j* J^ J* J; 


O 

rd 
> 


2 ° 

c?§ 




DC 


o © © 

S3 ,-h S3 

cd cd cd 
? £ £ 


© © o o 

cd cd cd cd 

^ ^ ^ ts 


02 
H 
H 
O 

P4 

02 




•S 3" © 3 © O o 

d o d s d d d 
S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 s: 


s 

s 


2 © 

c?c1 

S3 S3 


o 

as 

cd 
s 


© © © 

S3 ^d S3 

cd cd cd 

S3 S3 S3 


© r © r, o"' O 
^ t-,o,j* 
cd cd cd cd 

S3 S3 S3 S3 


6 

02 


"3 =* 2 3 2 2 o 

cd © cd © cd cd cd 

72 X 02 X 02 02 X 


O 

1 

QQ 


2 © 

72 02 


d 

ci 

sa 


© © © 

a -3 ci 

X 02 02 


© o © © 
cd cd cd cd 

X X 02 X 


CO 
x> 

H 
O 

Ph 

02 


P 

Ph 


•d 3 o d © o n 

d o d o d d d 
S3 s: s; S3 s s s 




1 

s 


© © 

c? cd 
s: S3 




X 

rd 
S3 


© © © 

S3 r-3d S3 

cd cd cd 

S3 S3 S3 


Poo© 

cd cd cd cd 

S3 S3 S3 S3 


6 


•^^©^©©-©©oooo©^©©© 

£ 4^ r^ £ ^ ,0 ,2 £ >* S3 OQ S3 ,3 S3 £ ^r© ^ 

dOdOdddddddddddddd 
;>»>-.>* ^ >-> >^ ^ >^ >% >^ >^ ^> >-. ^ >^ t- >» >-. 


02 

o 

w. 


P 
Ph 


*d rj O S © O r, 

cd © cd © cd cd cd 





2 ° 

c?cd 


a 

X 

- 


© © © 
S3 rOn S3 

cd cd cd 


© o o o 

cd cd cd cd 


g 


*S 3 2 3 2 2 o 

^d ,5 r^ r^ r^ -5 r^ 


p 

e3 


O O 
c?c1 


a 

X 

rd 


g,2 g 

cd cd cd 


© o o o 


rA 
02 

O 

Ph 

02 


p4 
p 

Ph 


c3©cd©cdcdcdcdcdcd 

^O r O^D^^2 r Q r Q^O^J^O 




X 

— 


cd cd a cd cd a cd 


02 


'3 d o d © © 

cd © id © cd cd cd 
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ p: 




1 


2 ° 

is ^ 


O 

X 

> 


§,2 S 

cd cd cd 
P= £ £ 


© o o q 

cd cd cd cd 
^ ^ fc ^ 






m S cc S bo S X Ph 


•saio 
-a:a:s 


ih 1 d 




jo • 


■* 


: o • 


O -1>00 


o 

02 

Ph 


■ S .a : : 

•,- § s - ■ 

Ph ^2 H 













DEMONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 147 

In the particular formation of the possessive pronouns, the 
possessive particle of the governing noun, is prefixed to that 
form of the personal pronoun which corresponds to the per- 
son or noun referred to. In the preceding table, which 
gives a complete view of the different possessive pronouns 
in every possible variety, the species and numbers marked 
at the head of the different perpendicular columns, are in- 
tended to represent the^goveming nouns ; whilst the per- 
sons, species, and numbers, at the head of the horizontal 
columns, are supposed to denote the persons and nouns to 
which reference is made. 

Examples, 



Governing 
noun. 


Pronoun or noun 
referred to. 


Uiiuitwaiia wako, thy child . . . 


wena. 


Ihashe lake, his horse 


yena. 


Inkosi yajo, his chief 


indoda. 


Isono saboj their sin 


abantu, 



DEMONSTRATIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

175. Personal pronouns of the third person become demon- 
strative, by prefixing the vowel which precedes the final syl- 
lable of the demonstrative pronouns from which they are de- 
rived, and rejecting, in the case of those forms which use it, 
the epenthetic /. The following comparative view will exem- 
plify the mode of their formation : — 







1st. species. 


2nd. species. 


3rd. species. 




SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


Demon. 
Personal 


lowo 
oyena 


aho 
tfbona 


elo 
elona 


l«wo 
#wona 


leyo 
eyona 


ezo 
ezona 


4th. spec. 


5th. species. 


6th. species. 


7th. 

SPEC. 


8th. 

SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


sing. 


PLUE. 


eso 
esona 


ezo 
ezona 


o\o 
olona 


ezo 
ezona 


lowo 
owona 


leyo 
eyona 


obo 
obona 


oko 
okona 



148 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



Examples. 

Siiialo elona 'lizwi eliqinisiweyo 

lobuprofite ; 
Esona 'sitade esikulu; 
Ezona 'ndawo zizuzwayo ngaba- 

ntu abanjalo zizipina? 
Ngabolwaluko abona banjalo ka- 

kulu; ( 13 i, 3) 



We have that sure word of pro* 

phecy. 
That great city. 
Those things which arc obtained 

by such people arc what ? 
Those who are specially so arc 

they of the circumcision. 



Occasionally, the epenthetic I accompanies "the above mentioned vowel, as 
in the following example :- 

Leyona 'nto cnkulu That great thing. 

EELAT1YE PEONOUNS. 

176. The relative pronouns, tvho, ivhich, and that, are 
expressed by a, e, or o ; the particular form, in any given 
instance, being determined according to the following rules: — 

1. If the relative pronoun be connected with a verb as 
its object, in the sense of whom or which, or if it precede a 
a verb in the sense of the conjunction that, its form will be 
determined by the nominative to such verbs. 

2. In all other cases, the correlative is the determining 
power. 61 

177. The correlative, or the nominative, may be either a 
noun, or a pronoun : 

1. If they are nouns, the relative takes the form of 
a, when their initial letter is a, or o : 
e, ... ... i: 



But nouns of the first species, singular, differ in their 
analogy according as they are correlatives or nominatives. In 
the former case, the relative takes the form of o ; but in the 
latter, it takes that of a, except before the aorist, Indica- 
tive, and the augmented forms of the tenses, where o is used. 
(Compare examples in § 448.) 



61 The term correlative has been 
adopted hi preference to that of ante- 
cedent, as the latter would bo, to a 
considerable extent at least, qiiite a 



noun or pronoun to which the rela- 
tive refers, or which it represents, 
being found very frequently after, and 
not before it. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



149 



2. If they are pronouns of the first or second persons, the 
relative takes the form of 

e, or o, when they are of the first person, both nnvibcrs : 
o, ... ... second person, singular: 

e, or o, . . . .... ... plural. 

3. If they are pronouns of the third person, the relative 
takes the same form as their corresponding nouns require. 



DERIVATION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

178. Relative pronouns are derived from the demonstra- 
tive pronouns which express this and these, being the final 
vowels of the monosyllabic ones, and the initial vowel of the 
polysyllabic ones. As in the case of the other pronouns, 
therefore, there are in fact as many different forms of the 
relative, as there are prefixes of nouns. Their general corre- 
spondency to these has been already given, on a plan adap- 
ted to the convenience of the learner : but their true cor- 
respondency, as well as their derivation, will more fully 
appear from the following comparative table: — 







1st. species. 


2nd. species. 


3ed. species. 




SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


Demon. 
Eelative 


lo, la 
o, a 


aba 

a 


eh 
e 


\a 
a 


le 
e 


ezi 

e 


4th. spec. 


5th. species. 


6th. species. 


7th. 

SPEC. 


8th. 

SPEC. 


sing. 


PLUE 


SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


esi 
e 


tfzi 
e 


olu 




ezi 

e 


\o 




le 

e 


obu 




oku 





The forms e and o are used as relative pronouns of the first and second per- 
sons, when required. Their usage in this respect is probably only one of 
accommodation, as there seems to be no reason for considering them prim- 
itives. 

179. It may be mentioned here, that some of the tenses of 
the verb are only used in a particular form, when preceded 
by the relative pronoun ; and that others, again, vary the 
form of one of their prefixes in the same circumstances. These 



150 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



forms and variations will be pointed out, when the formation 
of the tenses is under consideration. 

180. If the relative, moreover, is either nominative to the 
verb, or its immediate object according to the " first mode" 
of expression in § 443 ; or, if it is used for the conjunction 
that, as in § 521, and the constructions arising therefrom; 
the particle yo is affixed to the roots of the present, aorist, 
and perfect tenses, Indicative, and to that of the present, 
Potential, first form. But see §§ 434—438. 



FORMS OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

181. When the relative pronoun takes its form from the 
correlative, it has eight principal forms, and four compound 
ones. They are derived like those of demonstrative pro- 
nouns which have similar initial vowels, and are distinguish- 
ed by the same general significations. It may be observed, 
however, that the causal form varies according to the spe- 
cies and number of the noun to which it refers, or which 
it represents. The following table will be a sufficient illus- 
tration : — 



PRIN- 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 


CIPAL 


COMP. 








FORMS. 








FORMS. 




A 


E 





Simple 




a 


e 





Possess. 




wa, 


ice 


IVO 


Dative 




kwa 


k^ve 


kwo, ko 




First 


wakwa 


wakwe 


M'-akwo, wako 




Second 


ngakwa 


ngakwe 


ngakwo, ngako 




Third 


wangakwa 


wangakwe 


wangakwo, wangako 




Fourth 


njengakwa 


njengakwe 


njengakwo, njeugako 


Causal 




uga 


le, ye, ze, se 


ngo, lo, bo, ko 


Instrum. 




nga 


nge 


ngo 


Conjimc. 




na 


ne 


110 


1st. Com. 




nganga 


ngange 


ngango 


2nd. Com. 




njenga 


njenge 


njengo 



182. The different forms of the relative pronouns are ex- 
tensively used with other kinds of words as prefixes, or parts 
of prefixes, sometimes for the promotion of emphasis or 
precision, but oftener for the full expression of the sense 
intended. In the case of adjectives, their use has been 



OF THE VERBS, 151 

already shown. Their various usages with the other parts 
of speech will be seen, as the several constructions of these 
come under consideration. It may be remarked, however, that 
the meaning of the relative pronoun in the above forms, 
varies according to the construction in which it is found. 
Sometimes it includes a personal pronoun in sense, expres- 
sing he who, they who, §c. At other times it includes a 
demonstrative pronoun, expressing that which, those which, 
§c. Finally, it is often used as a simple demonstrative pro- 
noun, expressing that or those. See §§ 428, and 518. 

183. When the relative pronoun takes its form from the 
nominative to the verb, it does not admit of the distinction 
of forms. 

1. When used objectively, it simply expresses whom or 
which, in reference to the correlative with which it is connec- 
ted in sense, though not in form, whilst the place of separate 
forms is supplied by those of the personal pronouns, by means 
of which the various modifications of meaning denoted by 
whose, to whom or which, by whom or which, §c, are sufficient- 
ly indicated. But as this construction is wholly of a syn- 
tactical character, its fuller illustration must be reserved for 
a subsequent part. See § 44-3. 

2. When used conjunctional! y, the relative pronoun simply 
connects certain propositions together, according to § 521. 

COAUTIOK OF RELATIVE PBOffOUNS. 

184. The relative pronouns, a, e, o, whether they occur 
as the subject or as the object of the verb, coalesce with 
the vowel forms of the verbal prefixes according to § 37, 1. 
This rule is partly exemplified in the formation of the pre- 
fixes of adjectives, but a fuller illustration may be found by 
referring to the examples in § 443. 

OF THE VERBS. 

185. Kafir verbs are of two principal kinds, namely, Re- 
gular verbs, and Irregular verbs. 



152 OF THE VERBS. 

1. Regular verbs are those which take the verbal prefixes 
in one uniform manner. 

2. Irregular verbs include monosyllabic verbs > or those 
which consist of a monosyllable ; and vowel verbs > or those 
whose initial letter is a, e, or o. 

Thoir irregularity consists in the manner of taking some of the verbal pre- 
fixes. 

186. The following verbs, namely, ba, ya, nga, and 711a, 
are used in the formation of some of the tenses of the verb, 
and under those circumstances, accordingly, may be termed 
auxiliary verbs, 

187. The irregular verb ba, to be, when used as a prin- 
cipal verb, is called the substantive verb. 

188. There are a few verbs, also, which are only used in 
combination with other verbs, the signification of which they 
serve to modify ; and some, again, which when employed 
in combination with others, have a peculiar application of 
their meaning. Such verbs may be denominated idiomatic 
verbs. 

189. Verbs are distinguished by Forms, Voices, Moods, 
Participles, Tenses, Number, Person, and Conjugation. 

TOEMS. 

190. The principal forms which verbs are cnpable of as- 
suming, may be distributed into the Primitive, Simple de- 
rivative, and Compound derivative forms. 

191. The theme of the Kafir verb is the second person, 
singular, imperative mood, of the Primitive form. From 
this root all the other forms of the verb are derived, chiefly 
by inflection, but occasionally otherwise. 

192. The second person singular, imperative mood, of any 
given form, is the root of that form. 

THE PRIMITIVE EOEM. 

193. The Primitive form is the verb in its radical state. 
Verbs of this form are simply active or neuter, according to 
the nature of their signification. Thus; — 



FORMS OF VERBS. 153 

Tanda to love. 

Hamba to walk. 

Buba ... to perish. 

Amongst neuter verbs, there are some which are attribu- 
the of some quality or property, and which, in the English 
and many other languages, are expressed by the substantive 
verb and an adjective. As: — 

Lunga ... ... ... to be good. 

Zala ... to be full. 

Eanda ... to be cold. 

194. There are a few verbs in this form, which have a different 
final vowel to a. Of these, one ends in o, another in u, and two 
or three more in i. The probability is that all verbs originally 
ended in a. Thus tsJio seems to be a contracted form of tshoza, 
whilst tutu is evidently a remnant of tutuza the obsolete primitive 
of tuhmela. Jzi, again, is doubtless for aziba the corresponding 
form to the Sisuto itseba. In all the other forms of the verb, the 
final vowel of the root is uniformly a, except in the single case of 
the irregular verb tslw. 

105. Amongst verbs of the Primitive form, there are a few 
which appear to be compounded of two roots : as tandabuza, from 
tanda and buza ; Sfc. Some are probably derived from others : as 
tyeslia from tya ; tyabula from bula ; Jcalaza from Tcala ; Sfc. A few, 
again, are found in two or more forms : as londoloza and londa ; 
oigena and Jcena ; tabata and tata ; qesha and qasha ; Sfc. 

196. Such verbs as have been introduced into the language 
from foreign sources, usually terminate in slia, the preceding 
vowel being determiued on principles of euphony. Thus : varasha 
from ivachten ; bedeslia from bidden ; tt/iti/isha from gieten ; bata- 
losha from betalen; Sfc. 

SIMPLE DEEIVATIVE EOEMS. 

197. Simple derivative verbs are those which have un- 
dergone only one inflection or other change, in order to 
their formation. The several forms are as follow: — 

1. The first is derived from the primitive form by chang- 
ing its final vowel into ela. This may be termed the Rela- 
tive form } the verbal action being performed on behalf of, 



154 FORMS OF VERBS. 

or in relation to, some object. Verbs of this form, accor- 
dingly, include prepositions in their signification, of which 
for is the chief. Thus : — 

TandeZtf, to love for : from the theme tanclct. 
Hambe/^, to go to : ... ... hamba. 

Juimgela, to be good for : ... ... lunga. 

The irregular verb tsho becomes tsholo in this form. 

2. The second is derived from the primitive form by 
changing its final vowel into isa. This is the Causative 

form of the verb. As: — 

T&n&isa, cause to love : from the theme tanda. 
Hamb^a, cause to go : ... ... hamba. 

Ixmgisa, to make right : ... ... lunga. 

This form sometimes denotes " to help to do a thing. " As, sebenzisa, help 
to work ; twalisa, help to bear j lahlisa, help to lose j sengisa, help to milk ; 
timbisa^ help to capture ; &c. 

3. The third is derived from the primitive form by chang- 
ing its final vowel into eka. This form indicates subjection, 
either actual or possible, to the action expressed by the 
verb, and may be termed, therefore, the Subjective form. 

As:— 

Teaide7ca, to become loved : from the theme tanda. 

Lahle&#, to become lost : ... ... lalila. 

Hambeka, fo be walkable : ... ... hamba. 

JjungeJca, to be rightable : ... ... lunga. 

4. The fourth is derived from the primitive form by 
changing its final vowel into ana. This is the Reciprocal 

form of the verb, the action being performed by two or 
more mutual actors. Thus : — ■ 

TaiL&ana, to love one another : from the theme tanda. 

JL&mbana, to walk with one another : ... ... hamba. 

Jj\mgana, to be right with one another : lunga. 

The irregular verb tsho becomes tshono in this form. 

5. The fifth is derived from the primitive form by prefix- 
ing zi. This is the Reflective form of the verb, the action 
being reflected back upon the actor. Thus : — 



FORMS OF VERBS. 



155 



.Zitanda, to love oneself: from the theme tanda. 

Zibets, to beat oneself: beta. 

Zitobsi, to bend oneself : ... ... toba. 

Vowel verbs, in assuming this form, simply prefix z, the final i 
"being elided. Thus : — 

Zazi, to know oneself: from the theme azi. 

Zenza, to make oneself : ... ... enza. 

JZbyika, to fear oneself : ... ... oyika. 

COMPOUND DEEIVATIVE FORMS. 

198. The Compound derivative forms are derived from 
the preceding simple derivatives, by inflecting the final vow- 
el of their several roots. The different forms under this 
head are very numerous, many verbs passing through seve- 
ral formations. They will not require, however, a separate 
consideration, as the inflections are the same in form and 
force, as those of the first four simple derivative forms in 
§ 197, namely, the Relative, the Causative, the Subjective, 
and the Reciprocal. The Compound derivative forms, ac- 
cordingly, may be distributed into four classes, as in the 
following table : — 



PEIM. 
TOEM 


SIMPLE DEEIV- 
ATIVE POEMS. 


COMPOUND DEEIVATIVE EOEMS. 


1st. class 
(Relative) 


2nd. class 

(Causative J 


3rd. class 
(Subject.) 


4tii. class 
(Reciproc. ) 


Teta ■* 


Bel— Tetela 
Caus. — Tetisa 
Subj. — Teteka 
Becip. — Tetana 
Befl.— Ziteta 


Tetelela 

Tetisela 

Tetekela 

Tetanela 

Zitetela 


Tetelisa 
Tetisisa 
Tetekisa 
Tetauisa 
Zitetisa 


Teteleka 

Tetiseka 

Tetekeka 

Tetaneka 

Ziteteka 


Tetelana 
Tetisana 
Tetekana 
Tetanana 
Zitetana 



199. In the above table, which gives the principal and 
more usual forms of the Kafir verb, the compound de- 
rivatives are those which have undergone only one inflec- 
tion. There are many other forms, however, found in use, 
which are derived from those, just as they are from the 
simple derivatives ; and some of these further compounded 
derivative forms, also, are inflected again. But all the 
various compound forms, may be included in one or other of 



156 FORMS OF VERBS. 

the above four classes of compound derivatives, according to 
the form of their final inflection. 

200. With regard to the several forms which verbs are 
thus capable of assuming, it must be remarked, that no 
individual verb is found in all of them, and very few, per- 
haps, in even a majority of them. In many cases, also, 
the primitive form itself is not found in use, otherwise than 
as it exists in its derivatives. In the above table, accordingly, 
the theme teta must be regarded, rather as a model for 
showing the various forms and inflections of which verbs in 
general are capable, than as a particular illustration of its own 
usages. 

The primitive form, or theme, of some verbs has been preserved 
in nouns : Thus : — 

imfama, from mfama, as in mfameka. 

isiqwala, ... qwala, ... qwalcla. 

itamsanqa, ... tamsanqa, ... tamsanqela. 

ikuba, ... kuba, ... kubela. 

utaru, ... taruza, ... taruzisa. 

ukohlokohlo, ... kohla, ... koklcla. 

idungadunga, ... dungada, ... dungadcla. 

201. In reference likewise to the general force or sense of 
the various forms, it should be observed, that verbs are not 
always Relative, Causative, and so on, precisely in the same 
manner ; and consequently, the particular signification of any 
given verb, in many instances at least, can only be known 
from practice, or from the use of a Dictionary. Some de- 
rivative verbs are used in a sense which properly belongs to 
their primitives, though this is rarely the case, unless the 
primitive forms are obsolete. Verbs of this kind are chiefly 
found in the first and third simple derivative forms, but are 
sometimes met with in others. For example : — 

1st. — G-alela, kangela, kanyela, kwela, pela, sela, swela, vela, 
wela, cela, xela, &c. 

2nd. — Bulisa, nyanisa, taruzisa, cokisa, qayisa, &c. 

3 rc [, — Ealeka, baneka, boleka, beka, gxeka, kubeka, peka, se- 
ta, tyabeka, yeka, zeka, &c. 

4th.— Dana, fana, fumana, nana, sangana, cana ; &c. 



FORMS OF VERBS. 157 

There are a few instances, also, where a verb is found in a compound deriv- 
ative form, with neither its primitive nor simple derivative in use : as, omelela, 
peleka, qekeka y 8fc. 

202. Those compound derivative verbs which are formed 
by the reduplication of the same inflection, are usually in- 
tensitive of the primitive. Thus : — 

tirst class. — Tetclela, to advocate ; from teta, to speak : vu- 
yclela, to triumph ; from vuya, to rejoice : buyelela, to return the 
same day ; from buya, to return : bambelela, to hold on ; from ba- 
mba, to hold: &c. 

These verbs may take the Eelative form, in which case there is a triplification 
of the same inflection : as, tetelelela, to advocate forj bambelelela 3 to hold on 
for j &c. 

secoiod class. — Tetisisa, help to talk; from teta, to speak; 
vumisisa, help to sing : from vuma, to sing : Sfc. 

Reduplication of the same inflection in the third and fourth classes of com- 
pound derivative verbs, only occurs in the case of a few verbs which are not 
used in their primitive forms, and their signification, accordingly, is the same 
in general as that of simple derivative forms. Thus, lulekeka, to become ad- 
monished ; from luleka, to admonish : fumanana, to fall in with j from fumana, 
to overtake. 

203. An example or two will afford some illustration of 
the preceding sections on the Forms of the verb : — 

1. Zala is a verb of the Primitive form, signifying "tobe 
full: "this in the second simple derivative form becomes 
zalisa, which, is the Causative of the former, and signifies 
"to make full," and metaphorically, "to fulfil :" in the third 
class of compound derivatives it becomes zaliseka, to be- 
come fulfilled, which is the Subjective form of the preceding 
one: this form may again become Causative, and will then 
belong to the second class of compound derivative verbs, as 
zalisekisa, to cause to become fulfilled. 

2. Fana is a verb of the fourth simple derivative form, 
with the signification "to be like," and the theme (fa) of 
which is only used for purposes of derivation : 

i. In the first class of compound derivatives it becomes 
a Relative form, as fanela, to be like or proper for : this, 
again, may become Subjective, in which case it will belong 



158 STEM FORMS. 

to the third class of compound derivative verbs, as fanelelca, to 
be fit or suitable : and this, likewise, may become Causative, 
when it will belong to the second class, as fanelekisa, to 
make fit or suitable. 

ii. In the second class of compound derivative verbs, fana 
becomes fanisa, which is its Causative form, and signifies 
to make like : this may become Reflective, but will still 
continue in the same class, as zifanisa, to make oneself like : 
and this, again, may become Reciprocal, in which case it 
will belong to the fourth class, as sifanisana, to make one- 
self like to another. 

STEM FORMS. 

204<. There are many verbs of the Primitive form, and 
some, also, of the Derivative forms, both simple and com- 
pound, whose roots branch out into stems, either by the 
addition of certain syllables, or by the change of certain let- 
ters. These stem forms follow the analogies of the Primitive 
form, being capable of assuming the several simple and com- 
pound derivative forms, like the roots from which they 
branch off. 

PRIMITIVE STEM FORMS. 

205. The stem forms which are derived from verbs of 
the Primitive form, are as follow : — 

1. One form is derived by a reduplication of the root, 
which gives & frequentative force to the signification. As: — 

BOOT. STEM. 

Teta, to speak : Tetateta, to tattle. 

Suka, to rise up : Sukasuka, to rise up often. 

Hamba, to go : Hambaliamba, to go about. 

i. In the reduplication of trissyllabic roots, the final syllable of the first is 
omitted : as tyabatyabaza from tyabaza ; cwilicwilisha from cwilisha ; bovubovu- 
la from bovula ; qipuqipula from qipula ; Sfc. 

ii. Towel roots in taking this form elide the final vowel of the first : as 
alilulahlula from ahlula. 

2. Another form is derived by adding Icala to the root : 
but its occurrence is comparatively rare, being confined to 



STEM FORMS. - 159 

a few active verbs, which in this form have a subjective 
force. Thus : — 

BOOT. STEM. 

Bona, to see : Bonakala, to become seen. 

Cita, to scatter : Citakala, to become scattered. 

Va, to hear : Vakala, to become heard. 

Verbs which terminate in ka, elide it upon taking this form : as, tunulcala 
from tuniika. 

3. A still rarer form, with much the same force as the 
preceding one, is found by adding lala to the root. As : — 

BOOT. STEM. 

Fuinba, to heap : Pumbalala, to be in a heap. 

In some instances, the meaning of this stem form departs considerably from 
that of the root ; as panga, to plunder; pangalala, to be dispersed: whilst in 
others, both the stem and the root are used with the same signification j as 
tshaba and tshabalala, to be abolished. 

4. Some verbs with the terminations aka, ala, ata, ika, 
oka, uka, and ula, become active, and sometimes causative, 
by changing those terminations after the following manner : — 

i. Aha changes into asa : as, 

BOOT. STEM. 

Qanibaka, to burst, (n.) Qambasa, to burst, (act.) 

ii. Ala changes into aza : as, 

BOOT. STEM. 

Palala, to be spilt ; \ Palaza, to spill. 

Katala, to be troubled ; Kataza, to trouble. 



iii. Ata changes into esa : as, 

BOOT. STEM. 

Ambata to clothe oneself; ... Ambesa, to clothe (another). 
iv. Ika changes into isa: as, 

BOOT. STEM. 

Nyibilika, to melt, (n.) Nyibiliza, to melt, (aet.) 

Tyibilika, to slip, (n.) Tyibiliza, to slip, (act.) 

v. Oka changes into oza : as, 



160 STEM FORMS. 

BOOT. STEM. 

Grqoboka, to be broken open; G-qoboza, to break open. 

Tyoboka, to he broken through; ... Tyoboza, to Ireak through. 

vi. UJca undergoes two or three different changes as fol- 
low: — 

(a) It frequently changes into ula : as, 

ROOT. STEM. 

Apuka, to be broken; Apula, to break. 

Kazuka, to be torn ; Razula, to tear. 

Gruquka, to turn; (;*.) Gruqula, to turn, (act.) 



(b) It sometimes changes into usa : as. 



ROOT. STEM. 

Groduka, to go home ; Grodusa, to take home. 

Aluka, to be circumcised, ; Alusa, to circumcise. 

(c) Occasionally it changes into uza : as, 

ROOT. STEM. 

Tymnka, to be bruised ; ... Tyrunza, to bruise. ( § 59, 2.) 
vii. Ula changes into uza ; as, 

ROOT. STEM. 

Kumbula, to remember ; ... Kmnbuza, to remind. 
Punda, to rest ; ... Pumza, to make rest. (§59,2.) 

Several of the preceding stem forms are exceedingly rare. At the same time it 
may be observed, that some verbs are foiled in a stem form, where the root is 
not used ; and further, that many stem verbs are found in one or other of the 
derivative forms, where the stem form itself does not otherwise exist. 

, 5. A few primitive verbs appear to branch out into two 
stems, one of which is iniensitive of the root, and usually 
active in signification, whilst the other is a neuter form of 
the latter. They are formed by changing the final a of the 
root into ulula and uluka respectively. Thus : — 

ROOT. FIRST STEM., SECOND STEM. 

Kota, lick Kotulula, scrape up; — Kotuluka, be scraped up. 

Hlamba, wash .., Hlambulula, cleanse;— Hlambuluka, be cleansed. 



VOICES OF VERBS. 



161 



DEBIVATIVE STEU POEMS. 

206. Some verbs of the derivative forms which terminate 
in ela and ela, most of whose primitives are not in use, be- 
come active, causative, or intensitive, by changing those 
terminations into eza. Thus : — 

EOOT. STEM. 

Fudiimela, to be warm ; Fudumeza, to make warm. 

Sondela, to draw n ear ; Sondeza, to bring near. 

Kanyela, to deny ; Ivanyeza, to contradict. 

Oinelela, to be strong ; Onieleza, to strengthen. 

Qekeka, to be broken ; Qekeza, to break. 

Tekeleka, to be tied; Tekeleza, to tie. 

VOICES. 

207. Verbs of the Primitive form, and verbs of the sev- 
eral simple and compound Relative and Causative forms, 
together with most kinds of Stem verbs, have two voices, — 
the active, and the passive. Subjective, Reciprocal, and 
Reflective verbs, have no distinction of voice, except in a 
few instances where their Primitive forms are not found in 
use. See § 455. 

208. The passive voice is distinguished from the active, 
by a difference of form. This difference is effected by in- 
serting u before the final vowel of the latter, the u changing 
into w according to § 41, 3. Thus : — 



PETAL EOEAT 


SIMPLE DEEIVATIVES. ' 


ACT. 


PASS. 


POEMS. 


ACT. 


PASS. 


Teta 


Tetwa 


Belative 
Causative 


Tetela 
Tetisa 


Tetelwa 
Tetiswa 



COMPOUND DEEIVATIVES. 


STEM EOEMS. 


Belative forms. 


Causative forms. 


1 

ACTIVE. | PASSIVE. 

! 


ACTIYP. 


PASSIVE. 


ACTIYE. [ PASSIVE. 


Tetelela 
Tetisela 


Tetelelwa 
Tetiselwa 


Tetelisa Teteliswa 
Tetisisa jTetisiswa 


Tetateta Tetatetwa 
Palaza Palazwa 



w 



162 



THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



I. Some verbs in taking the passive form also undergo a 
mutation of consonants. This change always affects the 
theme of the verb, and not any of the subsequent inflec- 
tions. The following examples will illustrate the several 
mutations according to the rules in § 45, 4. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Libala, to forget : 
G-webela, to justify : 
Bubisa, to destroy : 
Gqoboza, to break open : 
Qubula, to strike : 
Grubungela, to cover : 

Kupa, to turn out : 
Bopelela, to fasten: 

Tuma, to send : 
Vumela, to permit : 
ISTqamldsa, cause to cut off: 
Tyumza, to bruise : 
Kumsba, to interpret : 
Kazimlisa, cause to glitter : 

Kumbuza, to remind : 
Bambelela, to hold on : 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Lityalwa, to be forgotten. 
Grwetyelwa, to be justified. 
Bujiswa, to be destroyed. 
G-qojozwa, to be broken open. 
Qutyulwa, to be struck. 
Grujungelwa, to be covered. 

Kutshwa, to he turned out. 
Botshelelwa, to be fastened. 

Tunywa, to be sent. 
Vunyelwa, to be permitted. 
INTqanyukiswa, caused to be Sfc. 
Tyunyuzwa, to be bruised. 
Kimyushwa, to be interpreted. 
Kazinyuliswa, caused to glitter. 

Kuajuzwa, to be reminded. 
Banjelelwa, to be held on. 



Mpompoza, to spring fiortli : ... Mpontsliozwa, to be sprung Sfc. 

The reason of these consonantal changes is sufficiently obvious, where the 
change takes place in the final syllable of a root, since neither of the consonants 
which suffer mutation is compatible with w, the sign of the passive voice. In 
medial syllables, the change is probably observed simply for the sake of eupho- 
ny or uniformity, though instances are occasionally found in which mutation 
does not always occur under such circumstances. 

2. In the case of the reduplicated form of the primitive 
verb, and its derivatives, two mutations take place. As : — 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Zamazamisa, to excite: 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Zanyazanyiswa, to be excited. 
209. Monosyllabic verbs insert iw before the final vowel, 



to form the passive voice. Thus :- 



PASSIVE STEM FORMS. 1G3 

ACTIYE YOICE. PASSIVE YOIOE. 

Ea, to steal: ... Biwa, to be stolen. 

Pa, to give : ... Piwa, to be given. 

Tsho, to sag so : ... Tsliiwo, to be said so. 

1. Some vowel verbs of the Primitive form observe the 
same rule : as akiwa, to be built; from aha, to build: abiwa, 
to be dealt out; from aba, to deal out. Others follow both 
usages : as enzwa and enziwa, to be made ; from enxa, to 
make. 

2. Liva, to fight, simply inserts i in taking its passive 
form : as liwa, to be fought. 

210. Verbs which terminate in i, affix wa in the forma- 
tion of the passive voice. Thus : — 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Azi, to know : ... Aziwa, to be known. 

Ti, to sag : ... Tiwa, to be said. 

But twa is frequently used for tiwa, the final i of the root being omitted 
before the affixed wa. 

PASSIVE STEM FORMS. 

211. The root of the passive voice is sometimes used in a 
reduplicated form, in order to give a, frequentative force to 
the meaning. Thus : — 

PQOT. STEM. 

Citwa, to be scattered : ... Citwacitwa, to be scattered about. 
Qutywa, to be driven: ... Qutvwaqutywa, to be driven about. 

212. Verbs of the passive voice may also assume a reci- 
procal form, by taking the inflection ana, in the same man- 
ner as verbs of the fourth simple derivative form. Thus : — 

EOOT. STEM. 

Bairjwa, to be held : ... Banjwana, to be held together. 

Alilulelwa, to be divided : ... Ahlulelwana, to be divided amongst-. 
Xoliswa, to be reconciled .... Xoliswana, to he reconciled with-. 

MOODS. 

213. The term mood or mode is employed to indicate the. 



164 MOODS. 

general divisions of which the verb is capable, according to 
the manner in which the action is expressed, or according to 
the different ways in which the connexion between the sub- 
ject and verb maybe stated. The usual number of moods may 
be assigned to the Kafir verb, namely, the Imperative, the 
Infinitive, the Indicative, the Potential, and the Subjunctive. 

214. The Imperative moodi is only used in the second per- 
son of the affirmative, and expresses command or exhorta- 
tion. Thus: — 

SING. PLUE. 

Teta, Speak ; Tetawi, Speak ye. 

The Formation of the plural is peculiar, ni being affixed, and not prefixed as 
in other cases. 

215. The Infinitive mood is formed by prefixing uku to 
the root. A negative form is also used, which is derived by 
affixing nga to the prefix uht, and changing the final vowel 
of the root into L Thus : — 

aff- Ukutetn, to speak. 
isteo.- TJluingateti, not to speak. 

1. The Infinitive mood partakes of the properties of nouns, 
as well as of those of verbs, and has accordingly been clas- 
sed with the former as the eighth or indefinite species. 

2. The initial vowel of the prefix is often elided, when 
preceded by another verb : as, 

TTye kuzingela ; I He has gone to hunt. 

Ndize kunceda ; I have come to help. 

This elision always takes place, -when the Infinitive is used in the forma- 
tion of tenses. 

216. The remaining moods are distinguished by tenses, 
and will not require, therefore, any separate consideration. 

PARTICIPLES. 

217. The participles are essentially parts of the verb, 
having nothing in common either with adjectives or nouns. 
The only difference, indeed, between them and the tenses 
of the Indicative mood, is, that the latter attribute directly, 
and the former indirectly. In other words, the tense re- 



PARTICIPLES. 165 

gards the action as proceeding from a person or thing; but 
the participle, as that which is to be attributed to a person 
or thing. The nomenclature of the participles, accordingly, 
is the same as that of the tenses of the Indicative mood 
( § 228). With these they agree in number, and generally 
also inform, the third person, first species, singular and 
plural, and the second species, plural, being the only in- 
stances of variation ( § 264). 

218. Participles have both an affirmative form, and a ne- 
gative one. The Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Second future 
participles, have also each a contracted form : and the First 
and Second future participles have compound forms. 

219. The present participle is formed by prefixing the 
present participial prefixes to the root of the verb, and chang- 
ing the final vowel of this into i for the negative. Thus :— 

aff.- JVditeta,, I, speaking. 
neg.- Ndingateti, I, not speaking. 

BT. E. Verbs of the Passive voice, and the irregular verbs va 
and tslw, retain the same form of the verbal root, both in the affir- 
mative and negative. 

220. The aorist participle is rarely used, and then only 
in the affirmative. It is formed by prefixing the aorist par- 
ticipial prefixes to the root of the verb. Thus : — 

ait.- JVdatetsL, I, spoken. 

221. The imperfect participle is formed by uniting the 
perfect participle of the auxiliary ba> to the present partici- 
ple of the verb. Thus : — 

aff.- Nd'ibe ncliteta, I, having been speaking. 
neg.- Ndibe ndingateti, I, not having been speaking. 

222. The perfect participle is formed by prefixing the 
present participial prefixes to the root of the verb, and chang- 
ing the final vowel of this into He or e. The negative has 
also another form, which is derived by affixing nga to the 
root. Thus : — 

aff.- Nditetile, I, having spoken. 

If EG.- Ndinqatetile, or 7 t j. i i 

Mingat^ga, \ I, not having spoken. 



166 PARTICIPLES. 

1. In order to prevent unnecessary repetition, it will be 
sufficient to remark here, that the same rules apply to this 
participle with regard to the form of its verbal root, as apply 
to the corresponding tense in the Indicative mood. See 
§ 236, 1—4. 

2. The same distinction with regard to time, also, exists 
between the aorist and perfect participles, as exists between 
the corresponding tenses. 

3. The second negative form is used to supply the place 
of an aorist negative participle, when required. 

223. The pluperfect participle is formed by uniting the 
perfect participle of the auxiliary ba, to the preceding one. 
Thus :— 

aff- Ndibe nditetile, I, having spoken. 

»- £*£■ ""jjng***^ or ] I, not having spoken. 
Ndibe ndmgatetanga, ) ' & L 

"N. B. The same difference in the time and state of the verbal 
action, exists between the pluperfect and other past participles, as 
between the corresponding tenses. 

224. The first future participle is formed by uniting the 
present participle of the auxiliary ya, to the Infinitive mood 
of the verb. Thus : — 

ait- Ndiya kuteta, I, about to speak. 
neg- Ndingayi kuteta, I, not about to speak. 

225. The second future participle is formed by uniting the 
perfect participle of the auxiliary ba, to the preceding one. 
Thus:— 

AEF- Ndibe ndiya kuteta, I, having been about to speak. 
neg.- Ndibe ndingayi kuteta, I, not having been about to speak. 

226. The Participles, as well as the Imperative and In- 
finitive moods, are extensively used in the formation of the 
different tenses, and may therefore be termed the principal 
parts of the verb. 

TENSES. 

221. The distinction of tense has reference to the time 
and state of the verbal action, 



TENSES. 167 

1. The verbal action may be expressed either In present, 
past, or future time. 

Past and future time, being each capable of a division 
into separate parts, may be referred to, again, either definite- 
ly or indefinitely. In other words, the verb may refer the 
performance of the action to some particular period, or to no 
particular period, of past and future time. 

2. The verbal action may be represented either as in a 
state of jirogress, or as completed. 

3. As the verbal action, therefore, may be exhibited in 
various times and states, so the verb possesses different 
forms and combinations, usually termed tenses, for the ex- 
pression of such variety. 

228. The Kafir verb has seven tenses, namely the Pre- 
sent, the Aorist, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, 
the First Future, and the Second Future. They are form- 
ed by adding the several verbal prefixes and auxiliary verbs 
(§§ 264 — 271), to the principal parts of the verb which is to 
be conjugated. 

229. That form of the root of the verb which belongs to 
any given tense, is termed the verbal root, in distinction 
from the prefix, and the auxiliary root. 

230. ^The tenses of the Kafir verb have both an Affirma- 
tive form, and a Negative form. A few have more than one 
form of each kind ; and some Affirmatives have two Nega- 
tives. 

231. Several of the tenses, in their different Moods, have 
also contracted forms, which are found in more general 
use than the full forms. 

232. Most of the tenses, moreover, have Augmented 
forms-, and some, likewise, together with their Augmented 

forms, have Compound forms. 

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

233. The present tense has two forms, the former of which is 
more emphatic in signification, as well as more general in 
use, than the latter. See § 530. 



168 TENSES OF THE 

1. The first is formed by prefixing the affirmative pre- 
sent tense of the auxiliary ya, to the root of the verb. As : — 

aff- JVJ/y«teta, I speak, or am speaking. 

i. This appears to be a contraction for ndiya nditeta, which 
would literally signify, I go speaking, that is, the action which I 
now perform is that of speaking. 

ii. The negative is not used, but its place is supplied by the 
first negative of the second form. 

2. The second is formed, by prefixing the present indica- 
tive prefixes to the root, and changing the final vowel of 
this into i for the negative. As : — 

aff.- JVditetn, I speak, or am speaking. 
keg. 1- Anditeti, ~) I speak not, or I 
neg. 2- Ndingateti, ) am not speaking. 

i. This form of the affirmative, and its second negative, are al- 
ways used in connexion ivith the relative pronoun. 

ii. Verbs of the Passive voice, and the irregular verbs va and 
tsho, retain the same form of verbal root in the negative, as in 
the affirmative. 

3. The present tense, as its name implies, is employed 
to denote actions or occurrences which are taking place at 
the present time. It is often used, however, like the pre- 
sent tense of many other languages, to express general facts, 
where no time is particularly alluded to, as well as habits, 
customs, &c. , when all time may be included. The verbal 
action is referred to as in a state of progress. 

4. The first form is sometimes used in an inceptive future 
sense : Thus, Ndiyahamba, I am going, may imply either 
the commencement of the act of going, or the intention of 
commencing it immediately. 

234. The aorist tense is formed by prefixing the aorist 
indicative prefixes to the root. As : — 

aff.- JVJateta, I spoke. 
neo- Andateta,, I spoke not. 

1. The substantive verb sometimes changes the final vowel of 
the root into i in the negative : as, andabi, Sfc. 

2. The negative form is never used with the relative pronoun^ but 
its place is supplied by the second negative of the perfect tense. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



169 



3. This tense is properly indefinite with regard to time, 
and hence its name. It is more generally employed to de- 
note the verbal action as completed in some indefinite period 
of past time. But in other of its usages, and especially in 
some of its copulative ones (§ 383), it appears to be wholly 
indefinite, the reference being, in such cases, neither to 
the time nor to the state of the action, but simply to the 
action itself as connected with a preceding one. The aorist, 
Indicative, therefore, forms an important as well as peculiar 
feature of the Kafir verb, and is extensively used. 

4. The aorist is sometimes employed with a future accep- 
tation in the way of warning, as in the following examples : — 



Yeka leyondhlela, wenzakala ; 

Musa ukwenje njalo, wazeka itya- 
la: 



Abandon that course, or some evil 
will befall you. 

You must not do so, or you will in- 
cur guilt. 



Hence the common expressions of warning : — Wahla ! Take care, or you will 
fall ! JVatsha i Take care, or you will burn ! &c. 

235. The imperfect tense is formed by uniting the per- 
fect tense of the auxiliary ba, to the present participle of 
the verb. Thus* — 

aff.- Ndibe nditeta, I was speaking.62 
2fEG»- Ndibe ndingateti, I was not speaking. 

This tense denotes the verbal action as having been in a 
state of progress, at some period of past time. 



62 Two other modes of writing 
this tense hare generally prevailed, 
both of which are liable to objection. 

1. It has been sometimes written all 
in one 'wor(L i —7idibenditeta,—a, mode of 
orthography which is evidently based 
on a wrong principle, since derivation 
plainly shows that it consists of two 
words, both of which are complete in 
themselves, each having its own pre- 
fix and its own root, being in point of 
fact two distinct verbs. When con- 
traction takes place, the tense is of 



course influenced by the principle of 
composition, but not before. 

2. The other mode of writing this 
tense, namely, ndibendi teta, consists 
indeed of two words, but upon what 
principle they are formed it is diliieult 
to conceive. The detaching of the pre- 
fix from the root of the principal verb, 
and then appending it to the auxiliary 
verb as an affix, seems so contrary to 
all analogy, that it is surprising how 
siich a form could ever have been a- 
dopted. 



170 TENSES OF THE 

23G. The perfect tense is formed by prefixing the pre- 
sent indicative prefixes to the root, and changing the final 
vowel of this into tie or e. Thus : — 

afp.- JSTditetile, or JSTditcte, I have spoken. 

neg. 1- Anditetile, or Anditete, \ J } j- ] 

neg. 2- Ndingakefcile, or JVdingaiete, j ^ 

1. The following variations in the form of the verbal root 
of the perfect tense of some verbs, require notice : — 

i. Verbs which terminate in ala, generally change this into ele : 
as, zele from zala ; bulele from bulala. 

ii. Verbs which terminate in ana, usually change this into ene : 
as, fumene from fumana ; luncjene from lungana. 

iii. Verbs with the termination ela, chiefly use the contracted 
form of the verbal root : as, landele from landela ; tetelelc from 
tetelela. 

The exceptions to the three preceding rules are mostly confined to dissyllabic 
roots : thus, dalile from dala; f anile from fana ; pelile from pe la. 

iv. Most verbs which terminate in ata, change this into etc, for 
the contracted form of the verbal root : as, pete from pata ; ambete 
from ambata. 

v. Verbs which end in ula, more generally use the contracted 
form of the verbal root than the full. 

vi. Most other verbs are oftener used in the fall, than in the 
contracted form. 

2. The following verbs are irregular in the inflection of 
the verbal root of the perfect tense : — 

III ala is changed into Jileli, and sometimes lilezi. 
Hluta (to be full) . . . liluti. 

Ma ' mi. 

Mita miti, for the contracted form. 

Tsho tsliilo. 

3. Verbs of the Passive voice, but in subjection to the 
above variations and irregular forms, change the final iva 
of the root into iwe or we. Thus : — 

ape- ~Ndi\)omive, or Ndibonwe, I have been seen. 
neg. 1- Andihoniwe, or Andibonwe, 1 I have not 

neg. 2- Ndingabonwe, or Ndingabomce, j been seen. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 171 

But 

~Nd\zelwe from the root zalwa. 

]$ dihiny enwe . . . funyanwa. 

Ndilandelwe . . . landelwa. 

N&i-pettve . . . pativa. 

Irregular verbs which form their passive voice by inserting iw, 
or affixing iva, only use the contracted form of the perfect verbal 
root: as old we from aJciwa ; pi we from piwa ; aziwe from aziiva ; 
tiwe from tiwa. The verb tsho uses tsliiwo for the verbal root of 
the perfect tense, as well as for that of the present. 

4. The negative verbal root, instead of being inflected 
according to any of the preceding methods, is often formed 
by affixing nga to the root of the verb. Thus : — 

AFP. NEG. 

Nditetile Anditeta^y«, and Ndingateta^a. 

Ndiboniwe Andibonwa^^, and Ndingabonwa??^. 

Ndizele Aandizala^a, and Ndingazalawy^. 

Ndizelwe Andizalwawy^, and N"dingazalwa^y«. 

Ndifumene Andifumana^a, and Ndingafumanawy«, 

Ndihleli Andihlalawy«, and Ndingahlala^y^. 

Ndipete Andipata^y«, and Ndingapataw^. 

Ndipetwe Andipatwawy^, and Ndingapatwa^. 

i. Verbs which terminate in i, change it into a, before nga : as 
azanga from azi ; tanga from ti. 

ii. Tsho changes into tslwngo, and tsliiwo into tshhoongo. 

5. The second negative forms are those which must be used with 
the relative pronoun, and not the first. 

6. The perfect tense denotes the verbal action as comple- 
ted in some definite period of past time, but with which is 
joined a reference to the present time. 

i. It is used, accordingly, to express a finished action 
which may have only just been performed : as, 



Ndigqibile lcmto j 
Ufikile ekaya ; 



I have finished that thing. 
He has arrived at home. 



ii. Also an action which took place at a former period, but 
the effect of which still continues : as, 



Ij-Kosi idalile amazulu ; 
Andizalisilc izulu nomhlaba na ? 



The Lord hath made the heavens. 
Do not I fill heaven and earth ? 



172 



TENSES OF THE 



iii. Hence neuter verbs employ this tense to express the 
states, properties, and qualities of objects, at the present 
time, inasmuch as their present existence involves the idea 
of completion, previous to the time of speaking : as, uJdeli, 
he is sitting; ulele, he is asleep ; ihingile, it is right; inco- 
lllc, it is dirty ; hifanelekile, it is proper ; &c. The present 
tense of such verbs denotes that which is still in process of 
accomplishment, or that which is still in progress of devel- 
opment: as, iyalunga, it is becoming right; iyatyeba, it 
is becoming fat ; iyaqondeka, it is becoming understood. 

5237. The aorist and perfect tenses may often be used, the 
one for the other, without disturbing the general sense in- 
tended. With regard to the manner in which they refer to 
the state of the verbal action, there is no difference between 
them, as they both denote finished action, the inflection in 
the root of the latter, being an exact equivalent, in this re- 
spect, to the affix in the prefix of the former. The only 
point, therefore, upon which they differ, is in respect of 
time, the aorist referring the action to an indefinite period, 
and the perfect to a definite one. 

238. The pluperfect tense is formed by uniting the per- 
fect tense of the auxiliary ba, to the perfect participle of 
the verb. Thus : — 

ait.- Ndibe nditetile, I had spoken. 
KEG.- Ndibe ndmgatetile, or j j had t ken63 
Ndibe ndmgatetanga. ) r 

1. This tense refers to the verbal action as having been 
fully accomplished before some other event alluded to, which 
itself is also completely past. As : — 

Ndibe nditetile engekafikanga lom- 

ntu; 
Xesliekweni u-Yesu ebczalehve e- 

Beteleheine, kwavela iziiumko- ; 

2. The same remarks applying to the perfect participle, 



I had spoken before this person ar- 
rived ; 

When Jesus was born at Bethlehem, 
there came wise men-. 



63 The observations made in the 
preceding note ( p. 169 ) in reference 
to the orthography of the imperfect 
tense, are also applicable to the plu- 



perfect, and indeed to every tense 
which is formed by the help of the 
perfect tense of the auxiliary verb ba. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



173 



as were made above ( § 236, 6, iii ) in reference to the per- 
fect tense, it follows, that the pluperfect tense of neuter 
verbs will be required, whenever it is intended to represent 
the state, property, or quality of an object, as complete in 
some definite period of past time, without reference to the 
present : as, ndibe ndihleli, I was sitting ; bebemi, they were 
standing; /cube kulungile, it was right; bekufanelekile, it 
was proper. 

239. The first future tense is formed by uniting the pres- 
ent tense of the auxiliary ya, to the Infinitive mood of the 
verb. Thus : — • 

aff.- Ndiya kuteta, I shall or will speak. 

NM - 1~ vf* kU w\ \ I "hall or will not speak.61 
neg-. 2- JSdingayi kuteta, ) r 

1. The second of the negative forms is the one which is always 
used with the relative pronoun. 

2. This tense denotes a present intention or determina- 
tion, to do a thing at some period of future time. As : — 



Ndiya kuxela leyonkabi ; 
Baya kufika ngokuhlwa ; 



I shall slaughter that ox. 
They will arrive this evening. 



He is to leave in the morning. 
All men will die. 



i. It is likewise used in a more general sense : as, 

Uya kumka kwakusa ; 
Baya kufa abantu bonke ; 

ii. Sometimes, also, it expresses a kind of necessity : as, 

Ndiya kwenje njaninaukuba ndiyizuze ; J How must I act to obtain it. 

240. The second future tense is formed by uniting the per- 



64 The first future tense is in the 
same predicament with regard to or- 
thography, as the imperfect and plu- 
perfect tenses, being also written in 
two other ways. Similar objections, 
however, He against these. The first 
method, ndiyakuteta, carries the prin- 
ciple of composition too far, there being 
two distinct words in that form ; whilst 
the second, ndiyaku teta, violates the 
principle of formation, the former word 
being redundant, and the latter defi- 
cient. 

The remarks made in this and the 



two preceding notes, apply with still 
greater force, where the above modes 
of orthography have been adopted in 
the second future tense ; in the several 
tenses of the Potential mood ; and in the 
Augmented and Compound forms of 
the tenses. According to the first me- 
thod, several words are congregated 
together in one, and thus the principle 
of composition is carried to an excess ; 
whilst according to the second method, 
words are divided in such an unintel- 
ligible manner, that the principle of 
formation is constantly violated. 



174 TENSES OF THE 

feet tense of the auxiliary ba, to the first future participle of 
the verb. As : — 

ait.- Ndibe ndiya kuteta, I should or would speak. 

NEG- Ndibe ndiugayi kuteta, I should or would not speak. 

This tense denotes a past intention or determination to 
accomplish the verbal action, whilst its actual accomplish- 
ment was either prevented, or was yet future, or supposi- 
tional. Thus : — 



Umutu eslbe siya kuldala naye ; 

Ndibe ndiya kwevjc njalo, koko 

ndoyika ubawo ; 
Naxeskekweni bendiya hufa ; 
Xeshekweni obey a kudumba ; 
Bebeya kugcinwa emashweni ama- 

ninzi, ukuba &c. ; 



The person with whom we should 

lodge. 
I would do so, but for fear of my 

father. 
And though I should die. 
When he should have swollen. 
They would be preserved from many 

ills, if &c. 



TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 

241. The present and imperfect tenses have each two 
forms. 

1. The first form of the present, is formed by prefixing 
the present tense of the auxiliary nga to the root of the 
verb, and changing the final vowel of this into e for the 
negative. Thus : — 

ail- JYdingatetzi, I may or can speak. 
NEG. 1- Andiiu/etete, ") T , , 

m 2- NdJfetete, j l ma ? or can not s P eak - 

i. But verbs which terminate in i, and the irregular verb tsho, 
retain the form of their roots in the negative, as well as in the 
affirmative. 

ii. The final vowel of the negative verbal root is sometimes i 
instead of e : as andingeteii for andingetete. 

iii. The substantive verb sometimes changes the final vowel of 
its affirmative root, in this form of the present, Potential, into i : 
as hungabi for hungdba. See § 537. 

iv. The second form of the negative is that which is used with 
the relative pronoun. 

2. The first form of the imperfect tense, is formed by 



POTENTIAL MOOD. . 175 

uniting the proper form of the perfect tense of the auxiliary* 
ba, to the participial form of the preceding. Thus : — 

aff.- Ndibe ndingateta, I might or could speak. 
feg.- Ndibe ndingetete, I might or could uot speak. 

N. B. The affirmative of this form of the imperfect tense, is 
often heard with the particle yo affixed. It is thus used apparently 
for the sake of precision, the yo serving to distinguish this tense 
from the negative form of the imperfect, Indicative, with which 
it is almost identical in form ; the chief, and in most cases, the 
only point of distinction, being a difference in the final vowel. 
Hence the affix yo, by drawing the accent forward to this distinct- 
ive vowel, and thus appropriating to it the greatest stress of voice 
in the act of enunciation, renders the nature of the tense at once 
more evident and emphatic. 

3. The second forms of the preceding tenses, together 
with all the other tenses of this mood, are formed by unit- 
ing the present affirmative of the auxiliary nga, to the cor- 
responding participles of the verb. Thus : — 

pees, aff- Ndinga nditeta, I should, woidd, &c. , speak. 

mg.- Ndinga ndingateti, I should, would, &c. , not speak. 

imp. aff- Ndinga ndibe nditeta, I should, woidd, &c. , have 
been speaking. 
keg- Ndinga ndibe ndingateti, I should, would, &c. , not 
have been speaking. 

pekf. aff- Ndinga nditetile, I should, &c. , have spoken. 

:neg- Ndinga ndingatetile, I should, &c. , not have spoken. 

plf/p. aff- Ndinga ndibe nditetile, I should, &c. , have spoken. 
keg-.- Ndinga ndibe ndingatetile, I should, &c. , not have 
spoken. 

1 eft. aff- Ndinga ndiya kuteta, It may be that I shall speak. 

feg.- Ndinga ndingayi kuteta, It may be that I shall not 
speak. 

2 fet. aff- Ndinga ndibe ndiya kuteta, It may be that I shoidd 

have spoken. 
... keg- Ndinga ndibe ndingayi kuteta, It may be that I 
shoidd not have spoken. 

Those participles which commence with vowels, sometimes take 



176 



TENSES OF THE 



.their euphonic letters or substitutes before them, after the auxil- 
iary nga. For example : — 

PRESENT. f IMPEEFECT. 



EES. 


SPEC. 


NUM. 


II 




sing. 


III 


1 


sing. 




2 


plur. 




3 
6 


sing. 

sing, 
plur. 



unga wuteta 
anga ?/eteta 
anga meteta 
inga </iteta 
unga ifuteta 
inga j/iteta 



unga uaibe uteta 
anga yebe eteta 
anga webe eteta 
inga yihe iteta 
unga ivxibe uteta 
inga ^ibe iteta 



4. The prefix a, first species, of the auxiliary verbs used in the 
formation of the tenses of the Potential mood, is always changed 
into u, when they are employed with the relative pronoun, whether 
this be expressed or understood. Thus : — 

No man can serve two mas- 



Akuko 'mntu j/ngakonzayo 
inkosi 'mbini ; 



ters. 



5. Tlie first contracted forms of the Potential mood are seldom 
used with the relative pronoun, the prefix of the auxiliary nga being 
usually restored in such circumstances. 

242. The Potential mood has no aorist tense. It may be 
further remarked, that though the other tenses bear the 
same names as those of the Indicative mood, yet their sig- 
nification is of course very different. This is sufficiently 
obvious, from the distinction which subsists between the 
two moods. The Indicative simply asserts a connexion be- 
tween some agent, and the action which is involved in the 
verb ; whilst the Potential refers to the possibility, liberty, 
&c. , that exists, of the agent performing such action. 

1. The time of the verbal action is characterized by con~ 
tingencg. 

2. The state of the verbal action depends upon that of 
the participle which is combined with the auxiliary. 

243. The first forms of the present and imperfect tenses, 
express probability, possibility, and liberty. As : — 



Ungahamba ukuba uyatanda ; 
Ukuba ndiyenje njalo, ndingafa ; 
Kodwa mina ndibe ndingoyitcmbayo 

nennyama ; 
Ivgokuba oko umteto ubuvgebe nako 

ukwenza kona j 



You can go if you like. 
If I do so, I shall die. 
Though I might also have confi- 
dence in the flesh. 
For what the law could not do. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 177 

244. The second forms of the same tenses express duty, 
obligation, will, and the like. As : — 

Singe sisiva u-Tixo pezu kwabantu ; 

Ezizinto ngazingabi njalo ; 

Ndi?ige ndisenje njalo ; 

Ndinge ndibe ndifunda, koko &c. ; 



We ought to obey Grod rather than 

men. 
These things ought not to be so. 
I would, should, or ought to do so. 
I would, should, or ought to have 

been learning, but &c. 



245. It will be seen from some of the preceding examples, 
that the present, Potential, is capable in certain cases of the 
same translation into English, as the future tenses of the In- 
dicative. The meaning, however, is very different, as will 
be evident from the following comparisons : — 

1. Ukuba ndiyenje njalo, ndingafa ; ) Tf T , T , ,, ,. 

Ukuba ndiyenje njalo, ndiya kufa; j ■" l do so > l Shail cLie ' 

In the first example the connexion between death, and the pre- 
ceding act, whatever it may be, is doubtful ; it may occur, or it may 
not : but in the second, the connexion is certain ; it is going to 
occur. The difference then between the first form of the present, 
Potential, and the first future, Indicative, may be thus stated. 
The former denotes that there exists a present possibility, Sfc., of 
the verbal action taking place. The latter denotes that there exists 
a present intention or determination to perform the verbal action. 
Whilst therefore they both agree in referring the actual accomplish- 
ment of such action to future time, yet in other respects they greatly 
differ. 

2. Ndinge ndikonza ; 7 t i -n n 

Ndibe ndiya kukonza ; j 1 should or w0llld serTe - 

The first example denotes that it is the present duty of the actor 
to perform the verbal action, or that he possesses a present ivilling- 
ness to do so. The second denotes a past intention or determination 
to perform the verbal action. The difference, therefore, between 
the second form of the present, Potential, and the second future, 
Indicative, is sufficiently obvious. Both tenses agree in referring 
the performance of the action to future time, but this reference is 
connected in the former case with present duty, and in the latter 
with past intention. 

246. It will be easy to apply the proper distinction, in all 
other cases where there is an apparent resemblance between 

Y 



178 



TENSES OF THE 



the significations of the second future, Indicative, and some 
of the tenses of the Potential. Thus : — 

2 fttt. ind- Ndibe ndiya ") I should have loved ; i. e. in some 
kutanda ; } past time I intended to love. 

"\ I should have loved ; i. e. I ought 
peef. pot- Ndinge ndi- / to have loved, or, I was willing to have 
tandile ; t loved ; implying that such is thepres- 
) ent probability. 

247. The future tenses express possibility, probability, and 
liberty. Thus : — 



Ndinga ndiya kufuduka, kulo- 

ko &c. ; 
Ndinge ndibe ndiya Jcwenje nja- 

lo, ukuba &c. ; 



There is a possibility that I 
shall remove, but &c. 

There is a probability that I 
should have done so, if &c. 



248. The perfect and pluperfect tenses are used in all the 
preceding senses. Thus : — 



Singa sikwazile na ukuba &c. ? 
Ngendingasazanga isono, kupe- 

la ngawo umteto : 
Ukuba u-Kristu ange evile u- 

bunzima ; 
Ndinge ndibe ndenje njalo oko, 

ukuba &c. ; 



Could we know that &c. ? 

I should not have known sin, 

but by the law. 
That Christ must needs have 

suffered. 
I might or could have done so 

then, if &c. 



PARTICIPIAL FOEMS OF THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 

249. The participial form of the first form of the present 
tense, is formed by prefixing the present participle of the 
auxiliary nga to the root of the verb, and changing the final 
vowel of this into e for the negative. 

250. That of the first form of the imperfect, is formed by 
uniting the perfect participle of the auxiliary ba, to the 
preceding participial form of the present. 

251. The participial forms of the second forms of the 
above tenses, as well as those of all the other tenses, are 
formed by uniting the present affirmative participle of the 
auxiliary nga, to the corresponding participle of the verb. 

252. These several participial forms are only used in the 
ways already stated, and in the formation of the Augmented 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 179 

forms of the tenses. They vary from the corresponding 
tenses, only in the form of the third person, Species 1, 
both numbers, and in the plural, Species 2. 

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

253. The Subjunctive mood has only two tenses, the Pres- 
ent, and the Aorist, both of which are very indefinite in 
their reference to the time and state of the verbal action. 

254. The present tense is formed by prefixing the present 
subjunctive prefixes to the root of the verb, and changing 
the final vowel of this into e for the affirmative, and into i 
for the negative. Thus : — 

ait- JS r ditete, That I may speak. 
neo.- Ndingateti, That I niay not speak. 

But the irregular verb tslw, and verbs terminating in i, do not 
change their final vowels, either in the affirmative or negative. 
Verbs of the Passive voice, also, and the irregular verb va, retain 
their final a in the negative. 

1. This tense expresses the end, design, or object of some 
verbal action, and is used both with and without a conjunc- 
tion. As : — 



Xelela lamntu asebenze ; 
Kdoya ngapa ukuze ndi- 
ztize imbewu ; 



Tell that person to work. 

I shall go yonder in order 

that I may get seed. 

% It is sometimes used interrogatively in a future sense ; 
but in this case the construction is evidently elliptical. Thus, 
Simke? Shall we go ? that is, Do you wish that we should 
go. 

3. It is very generally employed in an imperative sense, 
implying entreaty, request, or permission. As : — 



Usixolele izono zetu 
Usipe nfefe hvako ; 



Forgive ns our sins. 
Give us thy grace. 



This usage of the present, Subjunctive, is also elliptical, 
the full sentiment being, — We wish or pray that thou 
wouldst &c. 

4. In the preceding construction, where the verb is used 
transitively, the verbal prefix of the second person is often 



180 AUGMENTED FORMS 

omitted in the singular, and affixed to the root in the plural 
as in the Imperative mood. Thus : — 



sing- Ndilandele : 
PLUE.- N/dilandelen 



Follow thou me. 
Follow ye me. 



5. Verbs in the Reflective form are generally used in this 
way to express the Imperative, though in their case no ver- 
bal medial is required on account of their peculiar formation 
and force. Thus : — 



Zisindise ; 
Zifiimbeleni : 



Save thyself. 

Lay up for yourselves. 



2,55. The aorist tense is formed by prefixing the aorist 
subjunctive prefixes, to the infinitive mood of the verb. 
Thus:— 

ait.- Ndakuteta, "When I speak. 
neg- il r efokimgateti, YvHien I speak not. 

This tense refers the verbal action to some particular 
period of time, which may be either present, past, or future, 
according to the construction. As :-— 



Liti isela, lakubona abantu besiza, 

libalcke ; 
Ndibe ndilele lakupuma ilanga ; 
Ndiya kwenje njalo, ndakufika em- 

ziui wake ; 



The thief runs when he sees peo- 
ple coming. 

I was asleep when the sun rose. 

I will do so, when I arrive at his 
place. 



Augmented Forms of the Tenses. 

256. The tenses of the Indicative mood, except the aorist, 
and the several tenses of the Potential mood, have aug- 
mented forms, which are derived in the following manner : — 

1. Those of the Indicative tenses are formed by uniting 
the affirmative aorist indicative prefixes, or the aorist tense 
of the auxiliary ya, to their several corresponding parti- 
ciples. For example : — 

pees, aee.- JV^anditeta, and Ndaye nditeta. 

neg- JVJ/flaidingateti, and Ndaye ndingateti. 

imp. aee- Ndan&ibe nditeta, and Ndaye ndibe nditeta. 

if eg.- Nckndibe ndingateti; and Ndaye ndibe ndingateti. 



OF THE TENSES. 181 

2. The augmented forms of the Potential tenses are 
formed hy uniting the same aorist prefixes and tense, to 
their several corresponding participial forms. For exam- 
ple: — 

1 pees, aff- JVTftmdingateta, and Ndaye ndingateta. 

keo- JVJ«ndingetete, and Ndaye ndingetete. 

2 pees, aff.- JVi/andinga ncliteta, and Ndaye ndinga nditeta. 

... ]S t eo.- Ndaii&mga ndingateti, and Ndaye ndinga ndinga- 
teti. 

3. The aorist of ya, in this usage, always changes the 
final a of the verbal root into e, apparently for the sake of 
euphony, and is accordingly so given in the preceding ex- 
amples, as well as in the table of auxiliary verbs. 

4. The augmented forms of the above tenses, have the 
same general signification as those from which they are de- 
rived, with the additional idea of conjunction, which in some 
cases simply indicates a connexion with what has preceded, 
whilst in others, it involves the full force of the copulative 
and. Thus : — 



Ndaye ndhigafanelekile nokuba ndi- 
ngatwala izihlangu zake ; 

Koko ndinibonisile, ndaye ndinifw 
ndisile ekuhleni ; 

Sasivukelc oku ngennxa yake ; 



Whose shoes I am not worthy to 

bear. 
But I have showed you, and have 

taught you publicly. 
And this we beg for his sake. 



The present and perfect augmented tenses, are frequent- 
ly used in the same sense as the imperfect and pluperfect, 
respectively, of the simple tenses, a usage which is fully 
borne out by their formation. ( § 264, 2, i. — ii. ) Thus : — 

Waehlalela ukumenza idini ; 



Nabo babesenza isililo esikulu ; 

Isihlwele sasihleli simpahlile ; 
Ababali ababeklUe e-Yerusaleme ; 



He was ready to offer him up in 
sacrifice. 

And those that made a great la- 
mentation. 

The multitude sat about him. 

The scribes which came down 
from Jerusalem. 



257. The present, Subjunctive, also, has an augmented 
form, derived by prefixing the root of the auxiliary ma; the 



182 COMPOUND FORMS 

vowel forms of the verbal prefixes sometimes taking their 
euphonic letters or substitutes before them. Thus : — 

aff.- Jlimditete, Memtete or Maivutete, &c. 

15TEG- Jftfiidingateti, JLfoungateti or Maiu\mg&teti, &c. 

In the third person, Species 1, singular, and Species 2, plural, 
the final vowel of ma is sometimes elided before the verbal prefix; 
as, Mahambe, Let him go ; Moyilce, Let him fear. 

The augmented form of the present, Subjunctive, has the 
same general force as the simple form, but is more emphatic, 
especially in its imperative usage. As : — 



Igama lika-Yehova malidunyiswe ; 

Nkosi, maiikaulexe ukusisiza; 
Siyakukunga ukuba mausive ; 



Let the name of the Lord be 

praised. 
O Lord, make haste to help ua. 
We beseech thee to hear us. 



Compound Forms of the Tenses. 

258. Some of the tenses of each mood have compound 
forms. In the formation of these, the substantive verb is 
placed in the required tense, and then precedes the several 
participles of the principal verb. The compound forms of 
the tenses are therefore very numerous, as each tense may 
be used with most of the participles, both in the affirmative 
and negative forms. For example : — 

1 ftjt. ind. aff- Ndiya leuba nditeta, I shall he speaking. 

NEG-- Andiyi kuha nditeta, I shall not he speaking. 
pees. POT. aff- Ndingaba nditeta, I may be speaking. 

keg- Andingebe nditeta, I may not be speaking. 
pees. stjp.j. aff - Ndibe nditeta, That I might be speaking. 

neg.- Ndibe ndingateti, That I might be not speak- 
ing. 

1. The substantive verb sometimes elides its final vowel before 
those participles which commence with a vowel ; as, ungatf uliam- 
ia, akungeV uteta, aV ehamba, iF ihamba, Sfc. 

2. The substantive verb should only be considered as forming 
part of one of the compound forms of the tenses, when the follow- 
ing verb is in one of the participles, according to the above rule of 
formation. In other cases the two verbs must be conjugated sepa- 
rately and independently. 



OF THE TENSES. 183 

3. The compound forms of the tenses vary from their 
respective simple forms, chiefly in the manner of reference 
to the state of the verbal action. They will not require, 
however, a separate consideration, as their particular sig- 
nification will be obvious from the nature of their formation. 
One tense, accordingly, will suffice for the purpose of illus- 
tration. 

According to § 239, 2, the first future, Indicative, simply 
asserts that an action will take place in some indefinite period 
of future time. There is nothing expressed about the state 
of the action, as to whether it will be in a state of progress, 
or in a state of completion. In the case of this tense there- 
fore, it is left for its compound forms to denote definite 
future time, as well as to express future time in connexion 
with hothfinished and unfinished action. Thus : — 

first fut. est>.- Ndiyakuteta, I shall speak. 

COMP. form 1- Ndiya kiiba nditeta, I shall be speaking. 

2- Ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta, I shall have been 

speaking. 

3- Ndiya kuba nditetile, I shall have spoken, 

4- Ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile, I shall have spoken. 

The difference between the third and fourth of these compound 
forms, cannot be easily expressed in a translation. Both may de- 
note finished action, before the accomplishment of another future 
action. The former, however, may imply that the accomplishment 
of the first will immediately precede that of the second, and there- 
fore, in some sort, be present with it ; whilst the latter implies 
that the completion of the one action will be wholly past, some 
time before the occurrence of the other. 

259. Two of the participles, also, have compound forms 
(§ 218), but their use is very rarely required. These are 
formed in the same way as the preceding compound forms 
of the tenses, except that the substantive verb is placed in 
the required participle, instead of tense. See Paradigm of 
Verb. 

N. B. The definitions which have been given of the meaning 
and force of the several tenses, only refer to their affirmative forms. 
For the sake of simplicity, also, the illustrations have been usually 



184 NUMBER, PERSON, and CONJUGATION. 

confined to active verbs. In botli cases, however, the necessary- 
application can easily be made. 

NUMBEB. 

260. Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 
But Reciprocal verbs involve a plural sense, even when 
used in the singular number. As : — 



Ndancedana naye einsebenzi- 
ni; 



I helped with him in the work 
i. e. We helped each other. 



PEKSON. 

261. Verbs have three persons in each number. But the 
third person has as many different forms as there are sing- 
ular and plural nominal prefixes, and to each of which they 
severally correspond. 

262. The eighth or indefinite species of the third person, 
is used as the Impersonal form of the verb when required. 
Thus:— 



Kuyana ; 
Kwatwa ; 
Kubaliwe ; 
Kwoba nzima 



It rains. 
It was said, 
There is written. 
It will be heavy. 



1. But with the personal pronouns the proper personal form is 
more generally used. As : — 

Sibe sisiti abatetayo ; 
Ningenini abatshoyo ; 
W oba ngu-lvlosesi yedwa ; 

2. In some cases the third species, singular, is employed im- 
personally. As : — 

Ibindimi obeteta ; 
Ibinguwe owatetayo ; 



It was we who spoke. 
It is not ye who say so. 
It shall be Moses alone. 



It was I who was speaking. 
It was thou who spakedst. 



CONJUGATION". 

263. Verbs of every Form and Voice, are all conjugated 
throughout their several moods, participles, tenses, num- 
bers, and persons, by means of the same prefixes and aux- 
iliary verbs, according to the rules just stated. 



VERBAL PREFIXES, 185 

VERBAL PREFIXES. 

264. The verbal prefixes consist of certain particles, 
which serve to establish a formal and grammatical connexion 
between the verb and its nominative, according to the person, 
species, and number of the latter; or, in addition to this, 
to qualify the meaning. They are divided into present and 
aoristy and are either affirmative or negative. 

1. The present affirmative prefixes of the first and second 
persons, are derived from the euphonic letters according to 
§56, 1 . Those of the third person are derived from the 
several nominal prefixes, by eliding the final consonant of 
the monosyllabic ones, and the initial vowel of the polysyl- 
labic ones. 

But in the case of plural prefixes of the third and fifth species, two elisions 
take place, namely, one of the initial vowel, and another of the final consonant. 
And also in the case of plural prefixes of the second and sixth species, where the 
initial vowel and the succeeding consonant are both elided. 

The above prefixes differ in some of their forms, according as 
they are used for the Indicative mood, or the Subjunctive mood, 
or the participles. The participial prefixes differ from the Indica- 
tive ones in three of the forms, namely, in those corresponding to 
singular and plural nouns of the first species, and in that corre- 
sponding to plural nouns of the second species. The present 
Subjunctive prefixes differ from those of the Indicative, only in 
one form, namely, in that which corresponds to singular nouns of 
the first species. 

2. The aorist affirmative prefixes are derived from the 
present by affixing a, the final vowels of the latter, if a or i, 
coalescing in the a, but if //, changing into w with the usual 
exception. These prefixes have no variation in any of their 
forms, for the Indicative mood and the participles ; but in 
the Subjunctive mood there is a different form for sing- 
ular nouns of the first species. (Compare nominal and 
verbal prefixes in the table of " Alliteral particles " § 304.) 

Ey referring to § 234, 3, it will be seen that the force of the 
above affix a is two-fold : — 



186 VERBAL PREFIXES. 

i. In ordinary circumstances it denotes finished action: thus, 

TJ-teta He speaks. 

U-a-teta He spoke. 

ii. "When used for conjunctive purposes (§ 3S3), it expresses the 
copulative and, leaving the verb in such cases to take its meaning, 
as to the time and state of the action, from the one with which it 
is conjoined. 

N. B. It should be borne in mind, that this two-fold force of 
the affix a is observable not only in the aorist tense, but likewise 
in all others of which it forms a component part. The augmented 
forms of the tenses, accordingly, whether formed simply by the 
aorist indicative prefixes, or more emphatically by the aorist, In- 
dicative, of the auxiliary ya, may be employed either to express 
conjunction, or to denote completion; and hence their precise 
meaning will vary according to the construction in which they are 
found. Sometimes, also, both ideas will be found in combination. 

3. The negative forms of the verbal prefixes are formed 
as follows : — 

i. The present indicative prefixes, prefix a, or affix nga, to the 
affirmative. 

ii. The present subjunctive and. present participial prefixes, affix 
nga to the affirmative. 

iii. The ao7*ist indicative prefix a. The aorist subjunctive and 
aorist participial prefixes have no negative forms. 

iv. "Where the negatives are formed by prefixing a, the vowel 
forms of the affirmative prefixes take then euplionic letters or their 
substitutes before them in composition. The present indicative 
prefix, first species, singular, also changes u into a ; and the 
aorist indicative prefix, first species, singular, omits the to of the 
affirmative after the euphonic 7c. (Compare the several affirmative 
and negative forms in the succeeding tabular views of the verbal 
prefixes.) 

A and nga are probably mere variations of the same particle, nga being used 
in full as an affix, but eliding its ng when employed as a prefix. As parts of 
the verb they express not, their use being generally accompanied by some dis- 
tinctive change in the verbal root as well. Nga is sometimes used, also, as 
an affix in the verbal root of the perfect tense and participle, instead of the 
inflection He. Its derivation is probably to be found in ama-nga } one of the 
negative terms employed by some of the interior tribes. 



VERBAL PREFIXES. 



187 



265. The verbal prefixes are arranged, according to the 
moods and participles, as follow: — 

Present Verbal Prefixes. 

Indicative, 



EES. 


SPEC. 


I 
II 




III 


1 




2 




3 


... 


4 


i . . 


5 




6 




7 




8 



AFFI 


RMi 


LTIVE 


NEGATIVE 1 


NEGATIVE 2 


SING 




PLUR. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


ndi 




si 


audi 


asi 


nding 


i singa 


u 




ui 


aku 


ani 


unga 


ninga 


u 




ba 


aka 


aba 


unga 


banga 


li 




a 


all 


aka 


linga 


anga 


i 




zi 


ayi 


azi 


mga 


zinga 


si 




zi 


asi 


azi 


singa 


zinga 


lu 




zi 


alu 


azi 


lunga 


zinga 


u 


bu 
ku 


i 


awu 


ayi 
abu 
aku 


unga 


inga 
bunga 
kunga 



1. IT, first species, singular, is changed into a, before the auxili- 
ary nga, unless it be preceded by the relative pronoun, when u is 
used according to § 241, 4. 

2. Awa is sometimes used for aha, second species, plural. (§ 55, 2) 

Subjunctive, 



PEES. 

I 

II 
III 



SPEC. 



AFFIEHATIVE 


NEGATIVE 


SING. PLTJE. 


SING. PLUE. 


ndi si 
u ni 
a ba 


ndinga singa 
unga ninga 
anga banga 



The remaining forms are the same as the present indicative affir- 
mative, and second negative, prefixes. 

Participial, 



TEES. 

I 

II 

III 



SPEC. 



AFFIEJIATIVE 


NEGATIVE 


SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. 


PIXIE. 


ndi 


si 


ndinga 


singa 


u 


ni 


unga 


ninga 


e 


be 


enga 


benga 


li 


e 


linga 


enga 



The remaining forms are the same as the present indicative affir- 
mative, and second negative, prefixes. 



188 



VERBAL PREFIXES. 



Aorist Verbal Prefixes 
Indicative. 



EES. 


SPEC. 


AFFIRMATIVE 


NEGATIVE 






SING. PLUR. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 

II 
HI 


1 

2 


nda sa 
wa na 
wa ba 
la a 


anda 
akwa 
aka 
ala 


asa 

ana 
aba 
aka 


... 


3 
4 
5 


ya za 
sa za 
lwa za 


aya 

asa 
alwa 


aza 
aza 
aza 


•" 


6 

7 
8 


wa ya 
ba 
kwa 


awa 


aya 
aba 
akwa 



Awa ( for a-aa ) is sometimes used for a7ca, second species, plu- 
ral. 

Subjunctive. 



EES. 


SPEC. 


AFFIRMATIVE 
SING. PLUE. 


I 
II 




nda sa 
wa na 


III 


1 


a ba 



The remaining forms are the same as the preceding affirmative 
ones. 

Participial. 

These are the same in form as the aorist indicative affir- 
mative prefixes. For example : — 



EPS. 


SPEC. 


AFFIRMATIVE 
SING. PLUE. 


I 




nda sa 


II 




wa na 


III 


1 


wa ba 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



266, The auxiliary verbs are ba, to be ; ya, to go ; nga, 
to be possible or probable ; and ma, to stand. The several 
tenses and participles of these, which are used in the 
conjugation of other verbs, are as follow: — 



AUXILIARY VERBS, 



189 



The auxiliary ba. 
Perfect tense, Indicative mood. 



PEES. 


SPEC. 


AFFIRMATIVE. 






SING. 


PLUE. 


I 




Ndibe 


Sibe 


II 




Ube 


Nibe 


III 


1 


Ube 


Babe 




2 


Libe 


Abe 




3 


Ibe 


Zibe 




4 


Sibe 


Zibe 




5 


Lube 


Zibe 




6 


Ube 


Ibe 




7 


Bube 




... 


8 


Kube 




1. Ebe is very gen 


erally used for ube, first species, singular, and 


also for abe, second s 


>ecies, ph 


iral. 




2. Abe is used inst 


ead of ube 


, first species, singular, before the 


auxiliary nga, in the formation of the first form of the imperfect, 


Potential. Ebe, like 


jwise, is sometimes used. 


Per 


feet 


Participle. 


PEES. 


._ SPEC. 


AFFIRMATIVE 






SING-. 


PLUE. 


I 




Ndibe 


Sibe 


II 




Ube 


Nibe 


III 


1 


Ebe 


Bebe 




2 


Libe 


Ebe 



The remaining forms are the same as those of the perfect, In- 
dicative. 

The auxiliary ya. 

Present tense, Indicative mood* 



EES. SPEC. 


AFFIRMATIVE 


NEGATIVE 1 


NEGATIVE 2 




SING. PLUE. 


SING. 


PLUE. 


SING. PLUE. 


I 


Ndiya Siya 


Andiyi 


Asiyi 


J^dingayi Singayi 


II 


Uya JNlya 


Aknyi 


Aniyi 


Ungayi Ningayi 


III 1 


Uya Baya 


Akayi 


Abayi 


Ungayi Bangayi 


2 


Liya Aya 


Aliyi 


Akayi 


Lingayi Angayi 


3 


Iya Ziya 


A yip 


Aziyi 


Ingayi Zingayi 


4 


Siya Ziya 


Asiyi 


Aziyi 


Singayi Zingayi 


5 


Luya Ziya 


Aluyi 


Aziyi 


Limgayi Zingayi 


6 


Uya Iya 


Awuyi 


Ayiyi 


Ungayi Ingayi 


7 


Buya 


Abuyi 


Bungayi 


... \ 8 


Kuya 


Akuyi 


Kungayi 



190 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



Present participle. 



I 

IT 

III 



PEES. SPEC. AEEIEMATIVE NEGATIVE 

SING. PLUE. SING. PLUE. 

Ndiya Siya 

Uya Niya 

Eya Beya 

Liya Eya 

A o r i s t tense, Indicative mo- o d. (§ 256, 3.) 

PEES. AFEIEMATIYE. 



JNTdingayi Singayi 

Ungayi Ningayi 

Engayi Bengayi 

Lingayi Engayi 



I 

II 
III 



Ndaye 

Waye 

Waye 

Laye 

Taye 

Saye 

Lwaye 

Waye 
Baye 
Kwayi 



PLTJE. 

Saye 

Naye 

Baye 

Aye 

Zaye 

Zaye 

Zaye 

Taye 



The auxiliary nga. 
Present tense, Indicative mood. 

PEE. SPEC. AEFIEMATIYE NEGATIVE 1 [ NEGATIVE 2 



I 

II 

III 



PEES. 

I 

II 

III 



Ndinga Singa 

Unga JN T inga 

Anga 

Linga 

Inga 

Singa 



Lunga 
Unera 



Bimga 
Kunga 



Banga 

Anga 

Zinga 

Zinga 

Zinga 

Inga 



SING. 



PLUE. 



Andinge Asinge 
Akunge Aninge 
Akange Abange 
Alinge Akange 
Ayinge Azinge 
Asinge Azinge 
Alnnge Azinge 
Awunge Ayinge 

Abunge 

AJkunge 



SING. PLUE. 

Ndinge Singe 



Unge 

Ange 

Linge 

Inge 

Singe 



Bange 
Ange 
Zinge 
Zinge 
Lunge Zinge 
Unge Inge 
Bnn^e 



Kunge 



Present participle. 



SPEC. 



AFEIEMATIYE 



SING. 

Ndinga 
IJnga 
Enga 
Linea 



PLUE. 

Singa 
jNfinga 
Benga 
Eno-a 



NEGATIVE 



SING. PLUE. 

Ndinge Singe 

Unge Ninge 

Enge Benge 

Linge Enge 



AUXILIARY \ERBS. 191 

The remaining forms are the same as the preceding affirmative 
and second negative forms. The same remark applies to the 
formula of the present participle of the auxiliary ya. 

1. The final a of the auxiliary ng a, is often changed into 
e in the affirmative forms of the above tense and participle, 
apparently for the sake of euphony as in the case of the ao- 
rist of the auxiliary ya. For example : — 

Kdinga nditeta, or K"dinge nditeta. 
Xdinga nditetile, or Ndinge nditetile. 

2. The formation of the negative forms of the verh nga, in its 
auxiliary usage, is peculiar, the final vowel of the root being 
changed into e instead of i. In the second negative of the present 
tense, also, as well as in the negative of the participle, the affix 
nrja is omitted from the prefix. 

3. It may be observed here, that the auxiliary nga does 
not express all the meanings of the English auxiliary can. 
The idea of power is excluded, and other modes, according- 
ly, are adopted for its expression. Generally, the substan- 
tive verb and the noun amandhla are used for this purpose. 
(See also § 535) As : — 



^dingenje njalo ; 
Kdinainandhla okwenje njalo; 



I am at liberty to do so. 

I have power or ability to Jo so. 



The auxiliary ha. 

Ma is only employed as an auxiliary verb in the form of 
the root, according to § 257. Its use is that of an Impera- 
tive before the present, Subjunctive, and hence it often has 
the force of the auxiliary let. Thus, manditete, let me 
speak; literally, stand that I may speak. 

X. B. The preceding auxiliary verbs are all used as principal 
verbs, and are then conjugated like all others of the class to which 
they belong. 

267. The aorist tense of the auxiliary ya, is sometimes 
used, as a mere conjunctive. Thus : — 

And Enoch -walked with. God. 



Waye u-Enoki wahamba no-Tixo ; 
Kivaye iikuhlwa nokusa kwangum- 
hla wesitandatu ; 



And the evening and the morning 
were the sixth dav. 



192 CONTRACTED FORMS OF 

CONTBACTED POEMS 03? THE AUXILIAEY VEEB& 

268. The perfect tense of the auxiliary ba is often used 
in a contracted form, throughout its several derivatives. 

1. The usual method of contraction is, to drop the prefix 
when it commences with a consonant, and to elide the final 
vowel of the root when the prefix is a vowel. Thus : — 

Ndibe nditeta is contracted into Benditeta 
Libeliteta ... ... Beliteta 

Bube buteta ... ... Bebuteta 

Ubenteta ... ... TJbuteta 

Ibe iteta ... ... Ibiteta 

Abe eteta ... ... Abeteta 

But the rowel forms are occasionally contracted like the conso- 
nantal ones : as, Beuteta for Jibe uteta ; Beiteta for Ibe iteta. 

2. The several forms of the participle are also contracted 
in the same manner. After the aorist indicative prefixes, in 
the formation of the contracted Augmented forms of the 
tenses, or after the auxiliary nga, a further contraction may 
take place, when the prefix of the participle consists of a 
vowel, by the elision of this. As: — 

"Wabuteta for "Waubuteta 

"Wabeteta . . . "Waebeteta 

Yabiteta . . . Yaibiteta 

Ngabutcta . . . Ngaubuteta 

Ngab iteta . . . Ngaibiteta 

269. The present and aorist tenses of the auxiliary ya, 
likewise, suffer contraction before a following principal part. 

1. The present tense suffers contraction in the formation 
of the first future, Indicative : 

i. In the affirmative, the contraction takes place according 
to § 59, 1 ; but it must be further observed, that when these 
contracted forms are used, the Infinitive prefix of the verb 
to be conjugated is also dropped. 

ii. In the negative, the root of the auxiliary is simply 
omitted ; but in the second negative, the final a of the pre- 
fix is also changed into e before the prefix of the following 
Infinitive. 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 193 

There is another form for the first negative occasionally heard, 
which is derived from the contracted form of the affirmative by pre- 
fixing a : as, andoteta, asoteta, akwoteta, anoteta, fyc. Its nse, 
however, is not well established, and for that reason it has been 
omitted in the paradigm. 

2. The aorist tense suffers contraction in connexion with 
a following participle which has a vowel prefix, in the for- 
mation of the contracted Augmented forms of the tenses, 
according to § 38. Thus : — ■ 

"Wayeteta for "Waye eteta 
Yayiteta ... Yayeiteta 



"Way eb eteta 
Yayibiteta 
Ayeya knteta 
"Wayengateta 



Waye eb eteta 
Yaye ibiteta 
Aye eya kuteta 
"Waye engateta 



270. The present tense of the auxiliary nga, affirmative 
form, is also often used in a contracted form, in the forma- 
tion of the different tenses of the Potential mood. 

1. In this case the method of contraction is for the most 
part uniform, the verbal prefixes being all dropped. As : — 

Kganditeta for JNTdinga nditeta 

IMgasiteta . . . Singa siteta 

JNgauteta . . . Unga uteta 

Ngaeteta ... Anga eteta 

2. But the vowel forms of this auxiliary admit of another 
mode of contraction in connexion with a following participle, 
the final vowel of its root being sometimes elided, instead 
of the prefix being dropped. As : — 

Unguteta for Unga uteta 
Angeteta . . . Anga eteta 
Ingiteta . . . Inga iteta 

N. B. "When the auxiliary verbs are used in their contracted 
forms, they ore prefixed to the following principal part, as in the 
preceding examples. 

271. As the auxiliary verbs, ba, ya, and nga, are fre- 
quently used in combination one with another, and some- 

A A 



194 VERBAL MEDIALS. 

times all together ; and as their vowel forms are capable, 
in such circumstances, of passing through different modes 
of contraction ; the following examples may be necessary 
for their fuller illustration, and for future reference* 

Ba and A oris t prefixes, 

Wauhutetsb ") 

Wa&euteta > for "Waube uteta 

Wa&uteta ) 

Ba and Ya. 



Yayihe iteta 
Yaye ibitei 
Yaye beite 
Yayi&iteta 



l^fit * > Xayeibeite*. 



2\fywebe eteta 
Angebe eteta 
Ngae&eteta 
Aage&eteta 
Nga&eteta 



2Vga and jBa. 

for Anga ebe eteta 



A^go and Ya, 



JVyaebe eya kuteta *" 
Anyebe eya kuteta 
NgaeJeya kuteta 
Ange&eya kuteta 
JNga&eya kuteta 



Nga, Ba t and Ya. 

for Anga ebe eya kuteta 



VERBAL MEDIALS. 

272. The verbal medials are certain particles, by means 
of which a grammatical connexion is established between the 
verb and its immediate object. The several particles are in- 
serted between the verbal prefix and root, and vary in form 
according to the person, species, and number of the object. 



VERBAL MEDIALS. 



195 



Their derivation is from thesame source as that of the pre- 
fixes : — 

1. Those of the first and second persons, are the corre- 
sponding euphonic letters^ except that the second person 
singular takes k before it. 

2. Those of the third person are derived from the several 
nominal prefixes, by eliding the final consonant of the mon- 
osyllabicones, the remaining vowel taking its correspond* 
ing consonant (§41); and by eliding the initial vowel of the 
polysyllabic ones. 

i. But the singular prefix of tlie first species, retains the final 
consonant, and elides the initial vowel : 

ii. Whilst the plural prefixes of the second and sixth species, re- 
ject their consonant, and only retain the final vowel, which takes 
its corresponding consonant : 

iii. And the plural prefixes of the third and fifth species, elide 
both the initial vowel and final consonant, as in the formation of the 
corresponding verbal prefixes. (Compare the verbal medials and 
the nominal prefixes in the tabular view of "Alliteral particles'* 
§ 304.) 

273, The verbal medials are arranged as follow *?-5 



EES. 


SPEC. 


SING. PLTTE 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


ndi si 
ku ni 
m ba 
li wa 


... 


3 


yi zi 




4 
5 


si zi 
lu zi 




6 

7 
8 


wu yi 
bu 
ku 



274. The verbal medials, as well as the verbal prefixes, 
pwe their origin to the principle of Euphonic concord. In 
conformity to this, they are employed as the formal medium 
of concordance between the verb and the noun or pronoun 
related to it, the prefixes indicating the form of the subject 
or nominative, and the medials that of the immediate object 
or accusative. As component parts of the verb, therefore, 



196 REGULAR VERBS. 

they are the signs of person, species, and number, and hence 
a. pronominal value is acquired by them. 

In reference to the verbal prefixes, it may be necessaiy further 
to remark, that it is tlie present affirmative forms alone which con- 
stitute the formal sign of grammatical connexion. The aorist affir- 
mative prefixes, as well as all negative ones, include something 
additional. Thus, nda consists of ndi, the sign of person, &c, and 
a, the sign of tense : andi consists of a, the sign of negation, and 
ndi, the sign of person, &c. : ndinga consists of ndi, the sign of per- 
son, &c, and nga the sign of negation : anda consists of a, the sign 
of negation, ndi, the sign of person, &c, and #, the sign of tense. 
See § 264 

REGULAK VERBS. 

275. Regular verbs are all conjugated after the following 
model of teta ; the only variation being that some verbs in- 
flect their roots, in the formation of the perfect tense and 
participle, and occasionally in that of others, in a different 
manner, according to rules which have already been suffi- 
ciently stated. 

1. In the following paradigm of a Kafir verb, it is not necessary 
to give all the forms of the third person, throughout the several 
tenses of the different moods, as the others may be easily known 
from preceding examples, or from the manner of their formation. 
"With regard to the participles, it will be sufficient to give the forms 
of the third person, only so far as any difference exists between 
them and the tenses of the Indicative mood. 

2. It is not necessary, again, to give more than one form of the 
verlal root, in those cases where two or more forms are used ; or 
more than one form of the prefix, in the two or three instances 
where variation is allowed; as a reference to the rules of formation, 
and to the verbal prefixes and auxiliary verbs, will be sufficient for 
all practical purposes. 

3. Only one example, also, is given, of the several vowel prefixual 
forms of the contracted tenses, as an application of the rules al- 
ready stated and exemplified in §§ 268-271, will readily show what 
other forms may be used. This remark is the more needful to be 
borne in mind, inasmuch as, whilst the consonantal prefixual forms 
of the tenses admit of only one contracted form, the vowel ones ad- 
mit, in many cases, of three or four. In some instances, moreover, 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 197 

contraction takes place in the vowel forms, where none occurs in 
the consonantal ones. 

4. In the case of the Compound forms of the tenses, the first per- 
son singular of the full affirmative form will suffice for illustration, 
as their derivation is simple and uniform. 

5. In the conjugation of a Kafir verb, the principal parts are 
first given, as a knowledge of these will facilitate the acquisition of 
the others. 



Paradigm oftlie Regular Yerb teta. 
Imperative mood. 



SING. 

Teta, Speak 



PLI7R. 

Tetani, Speak ye. 



I nji n i t i v e mood. 

AEFIKMATIVE 

Ukuteta ... ... To speak. 

NEGATIVE 

Ukungateti ... ... Not to speak. 







Par 


t 


i c i p I e s 


• 


Present. 




ape- Speaking. 




PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


Nditeta 
Uteta 
Eteta 
Liteta 


Siteta 

Kiteta 

Beteta 

Eteta 


&G. 




jSTEGe.— JS~ot speakit 


Kf. 


EES. 


SPEC. 


SING-. 


PLUR. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


Ndingateti 

Ungateti 
Engateti 
Lingateti 


Singateti 
JSmgateti 
Bengateti 
Engateti 










&c. 





198 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 

AprisU (§220) 





AFF.- 


* Spoken*. 




EES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTTE. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


Ndateta 
Wateta 
"Wateta 
Lateta 
&c. 


Sateta 
JNateta 
Bateta 
Ateta 



PER9. 
I 

n 
in 



Imperfect. 

aff.- Havinffleen speaking. 



SPEC. 



SING. 

Ndibe nditeta 
Ube nteta 
Ebe eteta 
Libe liteta 



PLl>». 

Sibe siteta 
Nibe niteta 
Bebe beteta 
Ebe eteta 



PEES. 

I 

II 

III 



Contracted form 

SPEC. 



SING. 


PLUR. 


Benditeta 


Besiteta 


Ubuteta 


Beniteta 


Ebeteta 


Bebeteta 


Beliteta 


Ebeteta 


<fcc. 





NEG.- Not 



PEES. 

I 

II 

III 



PEES. 

I 
II 

III 



SPEC. 



SING. 

Ndibe ndingateti 
Ube ungateti 
Ebe engateti 
Libe lingateti 



&c. 
Qontyaefced form 



pi^b. 

Sibe singateti 
Mbe ningateti 
Bebe bengateti 
Ebe engateti 



SPEC. 



SING. 

Bendingateti 
Ubungateti 
Ebengateti 
Belingateti 
&c. 



PLTJE. 

Besingateti 
Beningateti 
Bebengateti 
I Ebengateti 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB, m 






Perfect. (§222) 




aff.- Having spoken. 


PEES, j 


SPEC. 


SING-. 


PLTTE. 


II 
III 


1 
2 


Nditetile 

Utetile 

'Etetile 

Litetile 

<fcc. 


Sitetile 
Mtetile 
Betetile 
Etetile 



I 

II 

III 



NEG-.-* Not having spolcen. 

PEES. I SPEC. SING. PL*TE. 



INTdingatetile 
Ungatetile 
Engatetile 
Lingatetile 



Singatetile 
]NTingatetile 
Bengatetile 
Engatetile 



i 
n 

in 



Pluperfect. (§223) 

ait.- Having spoken. 



EPEC. 



SING-. 

Ndibe nditetile 
Ube utetile 
Ebe etetile 
Libe litetile 
&c. 



pltte. 



Sibe sitetile 
]S"ibe nitetile 
Bebe betetile 
Ebe etetile 



Contracted f b r ni . 



I 

II 

III 



PEES. 

i 
H 

in 



SPEC. 



EC. 


SING. 


L 
I 


Benditetile 
Ubntetile 
Ebetetile 
Belitetile 




M. 



PLtTB. 

Besitetile 
Bemtetile 
Bebetetile 
Ebetetile 



ftp/G.- JSfo't having spoMn. 



Xdibe ndingatetile 
Ube imgatetile 
Ebe engatetile 
Libe lingatetile 
&c. 



PLUft. 



Sibe singatetile 
Nibe ningatetile 
Bebe bengatetile 
Ebe engatetile 



'200 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 



I 

II 

III 



Contracted form. 



Bendingatetile 
Ubungatetile 
Ebengatetile 
Belingatetile 
&c. 



Besingatetile 
Beningatetile 
Bebengatetile 
Ebengatetile 



PEES. 

I 

II 

III 



PEES. 

I 

II 

III 



PERS. 

I 
II 

III 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



First Future. 

ait.- About to speak. 



SPEC. 



SING. 

Ndiya kuteta 
Uya kuteta 
Eya kuteta 
Liya kuteta 
&c. 



PIUE. 

Siya kuteta 
Niya kuteta 
Beya kuteta 
Eya kuteta 



NEG.- Not about to speak. 

SPEC. SING. 



!N"dingayi kuteta 
Ungayi kuteta 
Engayi kuteta 
Lingayi kuteta 
&c. 



Singayi kuteta 
Ningayi kuteta 
Bengayi kuteta 
Engayi kuteta 



Second Future. 

Air.- Having been about to speak. 



SING. 

ISTdibe ndiya kuteta 
Ube uya kuteta 
Ebe eya kuteta 
Libe liya kuteta 
&c. 



PLUR. 

Sibe siya kuteta 
Nibe niya kuteta 
Bebe beya kuteta 
Ebe eya kuteta 



Contracted form. 



SING. 

Bendiya kuteta 
Ubuya kuteta 
Ebeya kuteta 
Beliya kuteta 
&e. 



Besiya kuteta 
Beniya kuteta 
Bebeya kuteta 
Ebeya kuteta 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 201 



xeg.~ Not having leen about to speak. 



EES. 




SPEC. 




SING. 


PLTTE. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


Ndibe ndingayi kuteta 
Ube ungayi kuteta 
Ebe engayi kuteta 
Libe lingayi kuteta 


Sibe singayi kuteta 
Nibe ningayi kuteta 
Bebe bengayi kuteta 
Ebe engayi kuteta 


&c. 




Contracted form. 


PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTTE. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


Bendingayi kuteta 
Ubungayi kuteta 
Eb engayi kuteta 
Belingayi kuteta 


Besingayi kuteta 
Beningayi kuteta 
Bebengayi kuteta 
Eb engayi kuteta 










&c. 





Indicative mood. 
Present tense. 

FIRST FORM. 

JLPF.- I speak, or am speaking, Sfc. 

PEES. SPEC. SING. 

I 
II 
III 



Ndiyateta 

Uyateta 

Uyateta 

Liyateta 

Iyateta 

Siyateta 

Luyateta 

Uyateta 



Siyateta 
Niyateta 



Buyateta 
Kuyateta 



Ayateta 
Ziyateta 
Ziyateta 
Ziyateta 
Iyateta 



SECOND FORM. 



aff.- I speak, or am speaking, Sfc. 

PEES. SPEC. SING. PLITE. 



I 

II 

III 



Nditeta 

Uteta 

Uteta 

Liteta 

Iteta 

Siteta 

Luteta 

Uteta 



B B 



Siteta 

Mteta 

Bateta 

Ateta 

Ziteta 

Ziteta 

Ziteta 

Iteta 

Buteta 

Kuteta 



202 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB, 

KEG.- IspeaJcnot, or am not speaking, 8fc. 











PIEST. 




PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTTE. 


I 




Anditeti 


Asiteti 


II 




Akuteti 


Aniteti 


III 


1 


Akateti 


Abateti 




2 


Aliteti 


Akateti 




3 


Ayiteti 


Aziteti 


... 


4 


Asiteti 


Aziteti 




5 


Aluteti 


Aziteti 




6 


Awuteti 


Ayiteti 




7 


Abuteti 


... 


8 


Akuteti 


SECOND. 


PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTTE. 


I 




Ndingateti 


Singateti 


II 




Ungateti 


Ningateti 


III 


1 


Ungateti 


Bangateti 




2 


Lingateti 


Angateti 






3 


Ingateti 


Zingateti 




.. 


4 


Singateti 


Zingateti 




.. 


5 


Lungateti 


Zingateti 




., 


6 


Ungateti 


Ingateti 




.. 


7 


Bungateti 


... 


8 


Kungateti 


Aorist tense. 


i.FF.~ I spoJce, Sfc. 


PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING-. PLUS. 


I 




Ndateta 


Sateta 


II 




Wateta 


Nateta 


III 


1 


Wateta 


Bateta 




2 


Lateta 


Ateta 






3 


Yateta 


Zateta 






4 


Sateta 


Zateta 






5 


Lwateta 


Zateta 






6 


Wateta 


Yateta 






7 


Bat eta 




... 




8 




~Kw 


ateta 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB, 

neg- I spoke not, fyc. 



203 



PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUS. 


I 




Andateta 


Asateta 


II 




Akwateta 


Anateta 


in 


1 


Akateta 


Abateta 




2 


Alateta 


Akateta 




3 


Ayateta 


Azateta 




4 


Asateta 


Azateta 




5 


ALwateta 


Azateta 




6 


Awateta 


Ayateta 


... 


7 


Abateta 


. . . 


8 


Akwateta 



Imperfect tense. (§266, 1) 
ait.- I was speaking, #c. 



PER9. 




SPEC. 




SING. 


PLTJB. 


I 




Ndibe nditeta 


Sibe siteta 


II 




Ube uteta 


Xibe uiteta 


III 


1 


Ube eteta 


Babe b eteta 


. . . 


2 


Libe lit eta 


Abe eteta 


... 


3 


Ibe iteta 


Zibe ziteta 


... 


4 


Sibe siteta 


Zibe ziteta 


... 


5 


Lube hit eta 


Zibe ziteta 


... 


6 


Ube uteta 


Ibe iteta 


... 


7 


Eube buteta 


... 


8 


Kube kuteta 


Contracted form. (§ 268, 1.) 


PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




Benditeta 


Besiteta 


II 




TJbuteta 


Beuiteta 


III 


1 


lib eteta 


Beb eteta 




2 


Eeliteta 


Abeteta 




3 


Ibiteta 


Beziteta 




4 


Besiteta 


Beziteta 




5 


Beluteta 


Beziteta 




6 


Ubuteta 


Ibiteta 




7 


Bebuteta 






8 




Bekut 


eta_ 



204 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 



ITEG- I teas not speaking, fyc. 



I 

II 

III 



jN"dibe ndingateti 
Lbe ungateti 
Ube engateti 
Libe liugateti 
Ibe ingateti 
Sibe singateti 
Lube lungateti 
IJbe ungateti 



Sibe singateti 
Mbe ningateti 
Babe b engateti 
Abe engateti 
Zibe zingateti 
Zibe zingateti 
Zibe zingateti 
Ibe ingateti 



Bube bungateti 
Kube kuiiirateti 



Contracted form. 



PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTTE. 


I 




Bendingateti 


Besingateti 


II 




TJbungateti 


Beningateti 


III 


1 


Lb engateti 


Bebengateti 




2 


Belingateti 


Abengateti 




3 


Ibingateti 


Bezingateti 




4 
5 
6 

7 
8 


Besingateti 
Belungateti 
Lbungateti 

Bebungs 
BekungT 


Bezingateti 
Bezingateti 
Ibingateti 

teti 

Lteti 



Perfect tense. (§ 236) 





apf- I lave spoken, Sfc. " 


EKS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




JSTditetile 


Sitetile 


II 




Ltetile 


JNTitetile 


III 


1 


Ltetile 


Batetile 


... 


2 


Litetila 
&c. 


Atetile 



feg- I have not spoken, Sfc. 







FIRST. 




PER8. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTJR. 


I 




Anditetile 


Asitetile 


II 




Akutetile 


Anitetile 


III 


1 


Akatetile 


Ab atetile 


... 


2 


Alitetile 


Aiatetil© 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 



205 



I 

II 

III 



SECOND. 
SING. 

Ndingatetile 
Ungatetile 
Ungatetile 
Lingatetile 
&c. 



Singatetile 
Ningatetile 

Bangatetile 
Ausatetile 



Pluper fe ct tense 

ait- / liad spoken, Sfc. 



ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




ISTdibe nditetile 


Sibe sitetile 


II 




Ube utetile 


Xibe nitetile 


III 


1 


Ube etetile 


Babe betetile 




2 


Libe litetile 
&c. 


Abe etetile 



Contracted form. 



I 
II 

in 



Benditetile 
Ubutetiie 
TJbetetile 
Belitetile 
&c. 



Besitetile 
Benitetile 
Bebetetile 
Abetetile 



I 

II 

III 



neg.- I had not spoken, Sfc. 

SPEC. SING. PLUR. 



Xdibe ndingatetile 
Ube ungatetile 
Ube engatetile 
Libe lingatetile 
etc. 



Sibe singatetile 
Isihe ningatetile 
Babe bengatetile 
Abe engatetile 



Contracted form. 



I 

II 

III 



SING. 

Bendingatetile 
Ubungatetile 
Ubengatetile 
Belingatetile 
&c. 



PLUR. 

Besingatetile 

Beningatetile 
Bebengatetile 
Ab engatetile 



206 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 

First Future tense. 

ait.- I shall or will speak, Sfc. 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


I 




II 




III 


1 






2 






3 






4 






5 






6 






7 




.. 


8 



Ndiya kuteta 
Uya kuteta 
Uya kuteta 
Liya kuteta 
Iya kuteta 
Siya kuteta 
Luya kuteta 
Uya kuteta 
Buya 
Kuya 



Siya kuteta 
Niya kuteta 
Baya kuteta 
Aya kuteta 
Ziya kuteta 
Ziya kuteta 
Ziya kuteta 
Iya kuteta 

kuteta 

kuteta 



Contracted form. (§59,1) 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



Ndoteta 

"Woteta 

Woteta 

Loteta 

Toteta 

Soteta 

Lwoteta 

Woteta 
Boteta 
Kwoteta 



Soteta 

Noteta 

Boteta 

Oteta 

Zoteta 

Zoteta 

Zoteta 

Toteta 



NIG.- I shall or will not speak, Sfc. 



ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. . 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 
3 


Andiyi kuteta 
Akuyi kuteta 
Akayi kuteta 
Aliyi kuteta 
Ayiyi kuteta 


Asiyi kuteta 
Aniyi kuteta 
Abayi kuteta 
Akayi kuteta 
Aziyi kuteta 


,.. 


4 
5 
6 

7 


Asiyi kuteta 
Aluyi kuteta 
Awuyi kuteta 
Abuyi ki 


Aziyi kuteta 
Aziyi kuteta 
Ayiyi kuteta 
iteta 


... 


8 


Akuyi k 


uteta 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 207 



Contracted form. 



I 
II 

III 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



I 

II 

III 



I 
II 

III 



Andikuteta 
Akukuteta 
Akakuteta 
Alikuteta 
&c. 

SECOND. 



Ndingayi kuteta 
Ungayi kuteta 
Ungayi kuteta 
Lingayi kuteta 
Ingayi kuteta 
Singayi kuteta 
Lungayi kuteta 
Ungayi kuteta 



Bungayi kuteta 
Kungayi kuteta 



Asikuteta 
Auikuteta 
Abakuteta 
Akakuteta 



Singayi kuteta 
JNFingayi kuteta 
Bangayi kuteta 
Angayi kuteta 
Zingayi kuteta 
Zingayi kuteta 
Zingayi kuteta 
Ingayi kuteta 



Contracted form. 



Ndingekuteta 
Ungekuteta 
I Ungekuteta 
I Lingekuteta 
&c. 



PLUR. 

Singekuteta 
Ningekuteta 
Bangekuteta 
Angekuteta 



Second Future tense. 
ait.- I should or would speak, Sfc. 



Ndibe ndiya kuteta 
Ube uya kuteta 
Ube eya kuteta 
Libe liya kuteta 
&c. 



Sibe siya kuteta 
Mbe niya kuteta 
Babe beya kuteta 
Abe eya kuteta 



Contracted form. (§ 271) 



SING. 

Bendiya kuteta 
Ubuya kuteta 
Ubeya kuteta 
Beliya kuteta 
&c. 



PLUE. 

Besiya kuteta 
Beniya kuteta 
Bebeya kuteta 
Abeya kuteta 



208 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 



I 

II 

III 



K"eg-.- I should or would not sj)ea7c, Sfc. 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



SING. 

Xdibe ndingayi kuteta 
Ube ungayi kuteta 
Ube engayi kuteta 
Libe liugayi kuteta 
&c. 



Sibe singayi kuteta 
Kibe ningayi kuteta 
Babe bengayi kuteta 
Abe engayi kuteta 



Contracted form 

SING. 



Bendingayi kuteta 
Ubungayi kuteta 
Ubeugayi kuteta 
Belingayi kuteta 
&c. 



Besingayi kuteta 
Beningayi kuteta 
Bebengayi kuteta 
Abeugayi kuteta 



Potential mood. 
Pr es ent tense. 

FIRST FORM. 

ajt.- I may or can sjpeak, Sfc. 



I 

II 

III 



Kdingateta 

Ungateta 

Angateta 

Liugateta 

Ingateta 

Singateta 

Lungateta 

Ungateta 



Bungateta 
Xungateta 



Singateta 

Ningateta 

Bangateta 

Angateta 

Zingateta 

Zingateta 

Zingateta 

Ingateta 



xeg.- I may ov can speak, Sfc. ( § 241, 1 ? ii ) 



I 

II 

III 



Andingetete 

Akungetete 

Akangetete 

Alingetete 

Ayingetete 

Asingetete 

Alungetete 

Awungetete 



Abungetete 
Akungetete 



Asingetete 

Aningetete 

Abangetete 

Akangetete 

Azingetete 

Azingetete 

Azingetete 

Ayingetete 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 209 









SECOND. 




] 


PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 




I 


; 


Ndingetete 


Singetete 




II 




Ungetete 


JNmgetete 




III 


1 


Angetete 


B angetete 




. . • 


2 


Lingetete 


Angetete 






3 


Ingetete 


Zingetete 






4 


Singetete 


Zingetete 




... 


5 


Lungetete 


Zingetete 






6 


Ungetete 


Ingetete 




. . . 


7 


Bungetete 




... 


8 


Kungetete 




SECOND FORM. (§ 241, 3) 




AFF- I would or should speak, §c. 


ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




N dinga nditeta 


Shiga siteta 


II 




Unga uteta 


Ninga niteta 


III 


1 


Anga eteta 


Banga b eteta 




2 


Linga liteta 


Anga eteta 


... 


3 


Inga iteta 


Zinga z iteta 


... 


4 


Shiga siteta 


Zinga ziteta 




5 


Lunga luteta 


Zinga ziteta 




6 


Unga uteta 


Inga iteta 


. • • 


7 


Bunga buteta 


... 


8 


Kunga kuteta 




Contracted form.- (§ 270) 


P 


EES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 




I 




INTganditeta 


JSTgasiteta 




II 




Ngauteta 


Nganiteta 




III 


1 


Ngaeteta 


. N gab eteta 




... 




2 


Ngaliteta 


Ngaeteta 



&( 



NEC- I would or should not speak, Sfc. 



I 

II 

III 



Ndinga ndingateti 
Unga ungateti 
Anga engateti 
Linga lingateti 
Inga ingateti 
Singa shigateti 
Lunga lungateti 
Unga ungateti 

Bunga bungateti 
Kunga kungateti 
c c 



PLUS. 



Singa singateti 
Mnga ningateti 
Banga bengateti 
Anga engateti 
Zinga zingateti 
Zinga zingateti 
Zinga zingateti 
Inga ingateti 



210 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 



Contracted form. 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTJK. 


I 




Ngandingateti 


INTgasingateti 


II 




Ngaungateti 


jNganingateti 


III 


1 


Ngaengateti 


Ngabengateti 


... 


2 


JNgalingateti 
&c. 


Ngaengateti 



Imp er feet tense 



FIEST FOEM. 



ait- I might or could speak, Sfc. (§ 241, 2) 



PLUR. 

Sibe singateta 
Nibe ningateta 
Babe bengateta 
Abe engateta 
Zibe zingateta 
Zibe zingateta 
Zibe zingateta 
Ibe ingateta 
bnngateta 
kun^ateta 



ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


I 




Ndibe ndingateta 


II 




Ube ungateta 


III 


1 


Abe engateta 




2 


Libe lingateta 




3 


Ibe ingateta 




4 


Sibe singateta 




5 


Lube lungateta 




6 


Ube ungateta 




7 


Bube 


. • . 


8 


Kube 



Contracted form. 



I 

II 

III 



SPEC. 



SING. 

Bendingateta 
Ubungateta 
Abengateta 
Belingateta 
&c. 



PLUE. 



Besingateta 
Beningateta 
Bebengateta 
Abengateta 



keg.- I might or could not speak, Sfc. 



I 

II 

III 



SPEC. 



Ndibe ndingetete 
Ube ungetete 
Abe engetete 
Libe lingetete 
Ibe ingetete 
Sibe singetete 
Lube lungetete 
Ube ungetete 



Bube bungetete 
Kube kungetete 



Sibe singetete 
Nibe ningetete 
Babe bengetete 
Abe engetete 
Zibe zingetete 
Zibe zingetete 
Zibe zingetete 
Ibe ingetete 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 211 



Contracted form 



ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




Bendingetete 


Besingetete 


II 




Ubungetete 


Beuingetete 


III 


1 


Abengetete 


Bebengetete 


... 


2 


Beliugetete 
&c. 


Abengetete 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



SECOND FOEM. 

ait.- I would or should have leen speaking, Sfc. 



Ndinga ndibe nditeta 
Unga ube uteta 
Anga ebe eteta 
Linga libe lit eta 
&c. 



PLTJE. 



Singa sibe siteta 
Ninga nibe niteta 
Banga bebe beteta 
Anga ebe^eteta 



I 
II 

in 



Contracted form. (§§ 268, 2 ; and 271) 

SING. PLUE. 



JNgandibe nditeta 
Ngaubuteta 
Ngaebeteta 
Ngalibe liteta 
&c. 



Ngasibe siteta 
Nganibe niteta 
Ngabebe beteta 
JNgaebeteta 



KEG.- Izvould or should not have teen speaking, Sfc. 



I 

II 

III 



N"dinga ndibe ndingateti 
Unga ube ungateti 
Anga ebe engateti 
Linga libe lingateti 
&c. 



Singa sibe singateti 
JNmga nibe ningateti 
Banga bebe bengateti 
Anga ebe engateti 



Contracted form. 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



SING. 

Ngandibe ndingateti 
Ngaub ungateti 
Ngaebengateti 
Ngalibe lingateti 
&c. 



PLUR. 

Ngasibe singateti 
Kganibe ningateti 
Ngabebe bengateti 
Ngaebengateti 



212 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB, 



Perfect tense. 

a.ff.- I may, can, would, or should liave spoken, Sfc. 



ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTTE. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


Ndinga nditetile 
Uiiga utetile 
Anga etetile 
Linga litetile 
&c. 


Shiga sitetile 
Ninga iiitetile 
Banga betetile 
Anga etetile 



I 

II 

III 



Contracted form. 

SPEC. SING-. 



Nganditetile 
Ngautetile 
Ngaetetile 
Ngalitetile 
&c. 



PLTJR. 



Ngasitetile 
Nganitetile 
JS T gabetetile 
Ngaetetile 



neg.- I may, can, would, or should not have spoken, 8fc. 



I 

II 

III 



Ndinga ndingatetile 
linga ungatetile 
Anga engatetile 
Linga lingatetile 
&c. 



Singa singatetile 
JNmga ningatetile 
Banga bengatetile 
Anga engatetile 



PEES. 

I 

II 

III 



Contracted form 

EC. SING. 

Ngandingatetile 
Ngaungatetile 

1 Ngaengatetile 

2 Ngalingatetile 
&c. 



Ngasingatetile 
Nganingatetile 
Ngab engatetile 
iNgaengatetile 



Pluperfect tense. 
ait- I might, could, would, or should have sjpo7cen, Sfc. 



PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTTE. 


I 




]N"dinga ndibe nditetile 


Singa sibe sitetile 


II 




Unga ube utetile 


Ninga nibe nitetile 


III 


1 


Anga ebe etetile 


Banga bebe betetile 


... 


2 


Linga libe litetile 
&c. 


Anga ebe etetile 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 213 



Contracted form. 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



Ngandibe nditetile 
INgaubutetile 
Wgaebetetile 
Ngalibe litetile 
&c. 



Ngasibe sitetile 
JSganibe nitetile 
JNTgabebe betetile 
INgaebetetile 



keg.- I might, could, would, or should not have spoken, fyc. 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


I 




II 




III 


1 


... 


2 



sing. 

Ndinga ndibe ndingatetile 
Unga ube imgatetile 
Anga ebe engatetile 
Linga libe lingatetile 
&c. 



Singa sibe singatetile 
Tsinga nibe ningatetile 
Banga bebe bengatetile 
Anga ebe engatetile 







Contracted fo 


ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


Ngandibe ndingatetile 
Naraubungatetiie 
JNgaebengatetile 
Ngalibe Hngatetile 
&c. 



PLUR. 



JNgasibe singatetile 
Nganibe ningatetile 
Ngabebe bengatetile 
Ngaebengatetile 



First Future tense. 

AIT.- It may he that I shall or will speak, Sfc. 



I 

II 

III 



SING. 

Ndinga ndiya kuteta 
Unga uva knteta 
Anga eya kuteta 
Linga liya knteta 
&c. 



PLUR. 

Shiga siya kuteta 
jNmga niva kuteta 
Benga beya kuteta 
Anga eya kuteta 



I 

II 

III 



Contracted form 



SPEC, 



SING. 

JNTgandiya kuteta 
Ngauya kuteta 
Ngaeya kuteta 
xSgaliya kuteta 



PLUR. 

jSJgasiya kuteta 
Nganiya kuteta 
Ngabeya kuteta 
Ngaeya kuteta 



214 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 

feg-.- It may be that I shall or will not speak, Sfc. 



I 

II 

III 



Ndinga ndingayi kuteta 
Unga ungayi kuteta 
Anga engayi kuteta 
Liiiga lingayi kuteta 
Ac. 



Singa singayi kuteta 
Ninga niugayi kuteta 
Banga bengayi kuteta 
Anga engayi kuteta 



Contracted form. 



PER9. 

I 

II 

III 



SING. 

Ngandingayi kuteta 
Ngaungayi kuteta 
Ngaengayi kuteta 
Ngalingayi kuteta 
&c. 



PLUR. 



Ngasingayi kuteta 
Nganingayi kuteta 
Ngab engayi kuteta 
JNgaengayi kuteta 



Second Future tense, 
ATT.- It may be that I would or should have spoken, Sfc. 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


I 




II 




III 


1 




2 



SING. 

Ndinga ndibe ndiya kuteta 
Unga ube uya kuteta 
Anga ebe eya kuteta 
Linga libe liya kuteta 
&c. 



Singa sibe siya kuteta 
Ninga nibe niya kuteta 
Banga bebe beya kuteta 
Anga ebe eya kuteta 



Contracted form 



I 

II 

III 



Ngandibe ndiya kuteta 
Ngaubuya kuteta 
Ngaebeya kuteta 
JNgalibe liya kuteta 
&c. 



PLUR. 



Ngasibe siya kuteta 
Nganibe niya kuteta 
JNgabebe beya kuteta 
Ngaebeya kuteta 



NEG.- It may be that I would or should not have spoken, Sfc. 



PERS. 


SPE. 


I 




II 




III 


1 


... 


2 



Ndinga ndibe ndingayi kuteta 
Unga ube ungayi kuteta 
Anga ebe engayi kuteta 
Linga libe lingayi kuteta 
&c. 



Singa sibe singayi kuteta 
Ninga nibe ningayi kuteta 
Banga bebe bengayi kuteta 
Anga ebe engayi kuteta 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB, 



215 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


I 


1 


II 




ni 


1 


... 


2 



Contracted form 

SING. 



rTgandibe ndingayi kuteta 
Ngaubungayi kuteta 
Ngaebeugayi kuteta 
jNgalibe lingayi kuteta 
&c. 



PLUR. 

Ngasibe singayi kuteta 
Nganibe niugayi kuteta 
Ngabebe bengayi kuteta 
JSTgaebeusayi kuteta 



AIT. 



Subjunctive mood. 

Present tense. 
That I may, might, ivould, or should speak, Sfc. 



XIG. 






PERS 




SPEC 




SEN'S. 


PLUR. 


I 




r>"ditete 


Sitete 


II 




TJtete 


INItete 


III 


1 


Atete 


Batete 




2 


Litete 


Atete 




3 


Itete 


Zitete 


... 


4 


Sitete 


Zitete 




5 


Lutete 


Zitete 




6 


TJtete 


Itete 




7 


Butete 




8 


Kutete 


That I may, might, would, or should not s J 


PERS. 


SPEC. 


SES"G. 


PLUR. 


I 




Xdingateti 


Singateti 


II 




Ungateti 


Niugateti 


III 


1 


Au^ateti 


Bangateti 






2 


Li 


ngateti 


Aiigateti 



&c. 

Aorist tense. 
AFP.— When I speak, or spoke, §'c. 

PERS. SPEC. SING. PLUR. 



I 

II 
III 



xUlakuteta 

Wakuteta 

Akuteta 

Lakuteta 

Yakuteta 

Sakuteta 

Lwakuteta 

YTakuteta 



Sakuteta 

jSTakuteta 

Bakuteta 

Akuteta 

Zakuteta 

Zakuteta 

Zakuteta 

Yakuteta 



Bakuteta 
Kwakuteta 



216 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 



neg- When I speaJc, or spoke not, §'e. 



ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 

II 
III 


1 


Ndakungateti 
"Wakungateti 
Akungateti 


Sakungateti 
Sakungateti 
Bakungateti 




2 


Lakungateti 


Akungateti 




3 
4 


Yakungateti 
Sakungateti 


Zakungateti 
Zakungateti 




5 

6 


Lwakungateti 
AY akungateti 


Zakungateti 
Yakungateti 




7 


Bakungateti 


... 


8 


Kwakungateti 



Augmented Forms of the Tenses. 



Indicative mood 





Pr esen 


t tense. 
-i 


(§ 256) 




1. 

OTIRMATIYE. 


PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




Sdanditeta 


Sasiteta 


II 




Wauteta 


Naniteta 


III 


1 


Waeteta 


Babeteta 




2 


Laliteta 


Aeteta 






3 


Yaiteta 


Zaziteta 






4 


Sasiteta 


Zaziteta 






5 


Lwaluteta 


Zaziteta 






6 


"Wauteta 


Yaiteta 






7 


Babuteta 






8 


Kwakuteta 




NEGATIVE. 


PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




Sdandingateti 


Sasingateti 


II 




"Waungateti 


INaningateti 


III 


1 


Waengateti 


Babengateti 




2 


Lalingateti 


Aengateti 




3 


Yaingateti 


Zazingateti 




4 


Sasingateti 


Zazingateti 




5 


LTvalungateti 


Zazingateti 




6 


"Waungateti 


Yaingateti ■ 




7 


Babungateti 






8 


K.vaki 


.mgateti 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 217 



2. 













AITIE^ATIYE. 




PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTR. 


I 






Noaye nditeta 


Save siteta 


II 






Waye uteta 


Xaye niteta 


III 


1 




Waye eteta 


Baye beteta 




2 




Lave liteta 


Aye eteta 




3 




Taye iteta 


Zaye ziteta 




4 




Save siteta 


Zaye ziteta 




5 




Lwaye luteta 


Zaye ziteta 




6 




Waye uteta 


Yaye iteta 




7 




Baye buteta 




8 




Kwaye kuteta 


c 


ontracted form. (275, 3) 


PEES. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 






Ndaye nditeta 


Save siteta 


II 






Wayuteta 


Xaye niteta 


III 




1 


Wayeteta 


Baye beteta 






2 


Laye liteta 


Ayeteta 






3 


Yayiteta 


Zaye ziteta 






4 


Save siteta 


Zaye ziteta 






5 


Lwaye luteta 


Zaye ziteta 






6 


Wayuteta 


Yayiteta 






7 


Baye but 


eta 






8 


Kwaye kuteta 




KEGATIYE. 


PEES. 


SPEC. 




SING. 


PLUR. 


I 






Ndaye ndingateti 


Save singateti 


II 






Waye ungateti 


Naye ningateti 


III 


1 




Waye engateti 


Baye bengateti 


. • . 


2 




Laye lingateti 


Aye engateti 




&e. 




Contracted form. 


PEES. 


SPEC. 




SING. 


PLUR. 


I 






Ndaye ndingateti 


Saye singateti 


II 






Wayungateti 


Xaye ningateti 


III 


1 




Wayengateti 


Baye bengateti 


. • • 


2 




Laye lingateti 


Ayengateti 












&c. 





D D 



218 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 





: 


[mperfect ten 
1. 

AEEIRHATIYE. 


se . 








ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




N"dandibe nditeta 


Sasibe siteta 


II 




Waube uteta 


Nanibe niteta 


III 


1 


"Waebe eteta 


Babebe beteta 


... 


2 


Lalibe liteta 
&c. 


Aebe eteta 



Contracted form. (268, 2) 

SPEC. SING. PLUR. 



I 

II 

III 



Ndabenditeta 
Wabuteta 

Wab eteta 
Labeliteta 

&c. 



Sabesiteta 
Nabeniteta 

Babebeteta 
Aebeteta 



NEGATIVE. 



I 

II 

HI 



SING. 

Ndandibe ndingateti 
AVanbe ungateti 
"Waebe engateti 
Lalibe lingateti 
&c. 



Sasibe singateti 
Nanibe niiigateti 
Babebe bengateti 
Aebe engateti 



Contracted form. 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



SING. 

Ndab endingateti 
"Wabimgateti 
"Wab engateti 
Labelingateti 
&c. 

2. 



PLUR. 

Sabesingateti 
Nabeningateti 
Babebengateti 
Aebensateti 



PERS. 

I 

II 
III 



AEEIRMATIVE. 



Ndaye ndibe nditeta 
\Vaye nbe nteta 
"Wave ebe eteta 
Laye libe liteta 
&c. 



Save sibe siteta 
JNTaye nibe niteta 
Bare bebe beteta 
Aye ebe eteta 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 219 



Contracted form. (§ 269, 2) 



I 

II 

III 



POEM 
All. 
KEG. 

POEM 
All. 
KEG. 



aif. 

Cont 
KEG. 

Cout 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTJE. 


I 

II 
III 


1 

2 


JNTdaye benditeta 

Wayubuteta 

Wayebeteta 

Laye beliteta 


Saye besiteta 
Naye beniteta 
Baye bebeteta 
Ayebeteta 




&c. 






KEGATIVE. 




SPEC. 




SING. 


PLUR. 


1 

2 




Ndaye ndibe ndingateti 
"Waye ube nngateti 
Waye ebe engateti 
Laye libe lingateti 


Saye sibe singateti 
Nave nibe liingateti 
Baye bebe beiigateti 
Aye ebe engateti 



&c. 







Contracted form. 


ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTJE. 


I 




Ndaye bendingateti 


Saye besingateti 


II 




Wayubimgateti 


Naye beningateti 


III 


1 


"Way eb engateti 


Baye bebengateti 


... 


2 


Laye belingateti 
&c. 


Ay eb engateti 



PEES. 
I 
I 



PERS. 
I 
I 



Perfect tense. 
1. 

SING. PLTJE. 

Sasitetile 



Ndanditetile ... 
Ndandingatetile 
2. 

SING. 

Ndaye nditetile .. 
Ndaye ndingatetile 

Pluperfect tense 
1. 

SING. 

ISTdandibe nditetile 

Xdabenditetile . . . 



Sasingatetile 



Saye sitetile 
Saye singatetile 



PLUR. 

Sasibe sitetile 
Sabesitetile 



Ndandibe ndingatetile . . . Sasibe singatetile 
Ndabcndin^atetile Sabesin^atetile 



220 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB, 



FORM 
AFF. 
Cont 

KEG. 
Cont 



PERS. 
I 
I 

I 
I 



2. 

SING. TLVR. 

Ndaye nclibe nditetile ... Saye sibe sitetile 
Ndaye benditetile Save besitetile 

Ndaye ndibendingatetile,.. Saye sibe singatetile 
Ndaye bendingatetile Saye besingatetile 

First Future tense. 



I 

II 

III 



AFFIEMATIYE. 
KUTft 

Ndandiya kuteta 
Wauya kuteta 
Waeya kuteta 
Laliya kuteta 
&c. 



PLITE. 



Sasiya kuteta 
Naniya kuteta 
Babeya kuteta 

Aeya kuteta 



PEES. 

I 

II 

III 



FORM 
AFF. 
KEG. 



PERS. 
I 
I 



NEGATIVE. 

SING. 

Ndaudingayi kuteta 
Waungayi kuteta 
Waengayi kuteta 
Lalingayi kuteta 
&c. 

2. 



plite. 

Sasingayi kuteta 
Naningayi kuteta 
Babengayi kuteta 
Aengayi kuteta 



PLUR. 



Ndaye ndiya kuteta Saye siya kuteta 

Ndaye ndiiigayi kuteta . . . Saye singayi kuteta 

Second Future tense. 



FORM 


PERS. 


AFF. 


I 


Cont. 


I 


KEG. 


I 


Cont . 


I 



1. 



Ndandibe ndiya kuteta . . . Sasibe siya kuteta 
Ndabendiya kuteta Sab esiya kuteta 

JSTdandibe ndingayi kuteta.. Sasibe singayi kuteta 
Ndabenclingayi kuteta Sabesingayi kuteta 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. m 



FORM 


PEES. 


AFF. 


I 


Cont. 


I 


NEG-. 


I 


Cont . 


I 



2. 

SING. PLUR. 

Ndaye ndibe ndiya kuteta . . . Saye sibe siya kuteta 
Ndaye beiidiya kuteta Saye besiya kuteta 

Ndaye ndibe ndingayi kuteta. .Saye sibe singayi kuteta 
Ndaye bendingayi kuteta Saye besingayi kuteta 

Potential mood. 



Present tense 













FIRST FORM. 








1. 








AFFIRMATIVE. 




PERS. 


SPEC. 




SING. 


PLUR. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 




Ndandingateta 
"Waungateta 
"Waengateta 
Lalingateta 
&c. 


Sasingateta 

Naningateta 

Babengateta 

Aeiigateta 






NEGATIVE. 




FERS. 


SPEC. 




SING. 


PLTTR. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 




Ndandino-etete 

o 

"Waungetete 
"Waengetete 
Laliugetete 
&c. 


Sasingetete 
Naningetete 
Babengetete 
Aengetete 






2. 




FORM 


PER 


s. 1 


SING. 


PLUR. 


AFF. 
KEG. 


I 
I 


Ndaye udingateta 

| Ndaye ndingetete 


. Saye singateta 
. Saye singetete 






SECOND EOKM. 

1. 
AFFIRMATIVE. 










PERS. 


i 


5PEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 

II 

II] 


[ 




1 

2 


N 
L 


clandinga nditeta 
r aunga uteta 
r aenga eteta 
iliiiga liteta 


Sasinga siteta 
Naninga niteta 
Babenga beteta 
Aenga eteta 



&c. 



222 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 



NEGATIVE. 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



SPEC. 



Ndandinga ndingateti 
Waunga ungateti 
Waenga engateti 
Lalinga lingateti 
&c. 



Sasinga singateti 
Naninga ningateti 
Babenga bengateti 
Aenga engateti 



FORM 


PEES. 


AFF. 


I 


NEG. 


I 



SING. PLUR. 

Ndaye ndinga nditeta Saye singa siteta 

Ndaye ndinga ndingateti . . . Saye singa singateti 



Imperfect tense 







FIRST FORM. 






1. 






AFFIRMATIVE. 




ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




Ndandibe ndingateta 


Sasibe singateta 


II 




"Wanbe nngateta 


Nanibe ningateta 


III 


1 


"Waebe engatcta 


Babebe bengateta 


.. 


2 


Lalibe lingateta 
&c. 


Aebe engateta 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



Contracted form. 

SING. PLUR. 



Ndabendingateta 
Waubinigateta 
Waebengateta 
Labelingateta 

&c. 



Sabcsingateta 
Nabeningateta 

Babebengateta 
Aeb engatcta 



NEGATIVE. 



PERS. 

I 
II 

III 



Ndandibe ndingetete 
Wanbe nngetete 
Waebe engetete 
Lalibe lingetete 
&c. 



Sasibe singetete 
Nanibe ningetete 
Babebe bengetete 
Aebe engetete 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 223 

Contracted form. 



PERS. 

I 

II 
III 



SING. 

Ndabendingetete 

"Waubungetete 

Waebengetete 

Labelingetete 
&c. 



PLUR. 

Sabesingetete 
JNTabeningetete 
Babebengetete 
Aebengetete 



FORM 


PERS 


AEF. 


I 


Con t . 


I 


NEG. 


I 


Cont. 


I 



2. 

SING. PLUR. 

Ndaye ndibe ndingateta Saye sibe singateta 

Ndaye bendingateta Saye besingateta 

jNTdaye ndibe ndingetete Saye sibe singetete 

Ndaye bendingetete Saye besingetete 

SECOND EOEM. 

1. 
AFFIBMATIVE. 



I 

II 

III 



SPEC. 



Ndandinga ndibe nditeta 
Waunga nbe uteta 
Waenga ebe eteta 
Lalinga libe lit eta 
&c. 



Sasinga sibe siteta 
Naninga nibe niteta 
Babenga bebe beteta 
Aenga ebe eteta 



Contracted form 



PERS. 

I 

II 

III 



SING. 

Ndandinga bendlteta 
Waunga nbnteta 
Waenga eb eteta 
Lalinga beliteta 
&c. 



Sasinga besiteta 
Naninga beniteta 
Babenga bebeteta 
Aenga ebeteta 



KEGATIYE. 



PERS. 


SPE. 


I 




II 




III 


1 


... 





SING. 

Ndandinga ndibe ndinsrateti 
Waunga nbe nngateti 
Waenga ebe engateti 
Lalinga libe lingateti 



Sasinga sibe singateti 
Naninga nibe ningateti 
Babenga bebe bengateti 
Aenga ebe engateti 



224 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 







Contracted form. 


PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLTJE. 


I 

II 

III 


1 

2 


Ndandinga bendingateti 
Waunga nbnngateti 
Waenga ebengateti 
Lalinga belingateti 
&c. 

2. 


Sasinga besingateti 
JNTaninga beningateti 
Babenga bebengateti 
Aenga ebengateti 



FORM 


PERS. 


AEF. 


I 


Con. 


I 


KEG. 


I 


Con. 


I 



FORM. 



AEF. 


I 


NEG. 


I 


FORM 


PERS. 


AEE. 


I 


NEG. 


I 



FORM 


PERS. 


AEF. 


I 


Con. 


I 


NEG. 


I 


Con. 


I 



SING. PLUR. 

Ndaye ndinga ndibe nditeta Saye singa sibe siteta 

Ndaye ndinga benditeta Saye singa bcsiteta 

Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndingatetL.Saye singa sibe singateti 
Ndaye ndinga bendingateti Saye singa besingateti 

Perfect tense. 
1. 

SING. PLUR. 

Ndandinga nditetile Sasinga sitetile 

Ndandinga ndingatetile Sasinga singatetile 

2. 

SING. PLUR. 

Ndaye ndinga nditetile Saye singa sitetile 

JSTdaye ndinga ndingatetile. .Saye singa singatetile 

Pluperfect tense. 

1. 

SING. PLUR. 

Ndandinga ndibe nditetile Sasinga sibe sitetile 

Ndandinga benditetile Sasinga besitetile 

Ndandinga ndibe ndingatetile.. Sasinga sibe singatetile 
Ndandinga bendingatetile Sasinga besingatetile 



2. 



FORM 


PERS. 


AEF. 


I 


Con. 


I 


NEG. 


I 


Con. 


I 



SING. 



Ndaye ndinga ndibe nditetile. . .Saye singa sibe sitetile 
Ndaye ndinga benditetile Saye singa besitetile 

Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndingate- Saye singa sibe singate- 
tile tile 

Ndaye ndinga bendingatetile . . Saye singa besingatetile 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 225 



FORM 


PERS. 


AFF. 


I 


iteg. 


I 



FORM 
AFF. 

KEG. 



PERS. 
I 
I 



First Future tense. 
1. 

SING. PLUR. 

Ndandinga ndiya kuteta Sasinga siya kuteta 

Ndandinga ndingayi kuteta. . Sasinga singayi kuteta 
2. 

SING. PLUR. 

JN~daye ndinga ndiya kuteta Saye siiiga siya kuteta 

jNTdaye ndinga ndingayi kuteta. .Saye singa singayi kuteta 

Second Future tense. 



FORM 


PERS. 


AFF. 


I 


Con. 


I 


KEG. 


I 


Con. 


I 



SING. PLUR. 

JSTdandinga ndibe ndiya kuteta. . . Sasinga sibe siya kuteta 
Ndandinga bendiya kuteta Sasinga besiya kuteta 

Xdandinga ndibe ndingayi ku- Sasinga sibe singayi ku- 
teta teta 

Ndandinga bendingayi kuteta... Sasinga besingayi ku- 
teta 



FORM 


PERS. 


AFF. 


I 


Con. 


I 


NEG. 


I 


Con. 


I 



SING. PLUR. 

Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiya ku- Saye singa sibe siya ku- 
teta teta 

Ndaye ndinga bendiya kuteta. . Saye singa besiya kuteta 

Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndingayi Saye singa sibe singayi 
kuteta kuteta 

Xdaye ndinga bendingayi ku- Saye singa besingayi ku- 
teta teta 

Subjunctive mood. 

Present tense. (§ 257) 





AFFIRMATIVE. 




ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




Manditete 


Masitete 


II 




Mautete 


Manitete 


III 


1 


Makatete 


Mabatete 




2 


Malitete 


Makatete 




&c. 








E E 





226 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 

KEGATIYE. 



I 

II 

III 



SPEC. 



Mandingateti 
Maungateti 
Makangateti 
Malingateti 
&c. 



Masingateti 
Maningateti 
Mabangateti 
Makangateti 



Compound Forms of the Tenses, 

Imperative mood. 

Yiba uteta. 

Participles. 

First Future. 

1. Ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

Second Future. 

1. Ndibe ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndibe ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

Indicative mood. 

A orist tense. 

1. Ndaba nditeta. 

2. Ndaba nditetile. 

First Future tense. 

1. Ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 227 

AUGMENTED FOEMS. 
1. 

1. Ndandiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndandiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndandiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndandiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

2. 

1. Ndaye ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndaye ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndaye ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndaye ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

Second Future tense. 

1. Ndibe ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndibe ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

AUGMENTED FOEMS. 

1. 

1. Ndandibe ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndandibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndandibe ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndandibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

2. 

1. Ndaye ndibe ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndaye ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndaye ndibe ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndaye ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

Potential mood. 
Present tense. 

ITBST FOBM. 

1. Ndingaba nditeta. 

2. Ndingaba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndingaba nditetile. 



«28 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 

4. Ndingaba ndibe nditetile. 

5. Ndingaba ndiya kuteta. 

6. Ndingaba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

AUGMENTED FOEMS. 
1. 

1. Ndandingaba nditeta. 

2. Ndandingaba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndandingaba nditetile. 

4. Ndandingaba ndibe nditetile. 

5. Ndandingaba ndiya kuteta. 

6. Ndandingaba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

2. 

1. Ndaye ndingaba nditeta. 

2. Ndaye ndingaba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndaye ndingaba nditetile. 

4. Ndaye ndingaba ndibe nditetile. 

5. Ndaye ndingaba ndiya kuteta. 

6. Ndaye ndingaba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

SECOND FOEM. 

1. Ndinga ndiba nditeta. 

2. Ndinga ndiba ndateta. 

3. Ndinga ndiba ndibe nditeta. 

4. Ndinga ndiba nditetile. 

5. Ndinga ndiba ndibe nditetile. 

6. Ndinga ndiba ndiya kuteta. 

7. Ndinga ndiba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

AUGMENTED EOEMS. 
1. 

1. Ndandinga ndiba nditeta. 

2. Ndandinga ndiba ndateta. 

3. Ndandinga ndiba ndibe nditeta. 

4. Ndandinga ndiba nditetile. 

5. Ndandinga ndiba ndibe nditetile. 

6. Ndandinga ndiba ndiya kuteta. 

7. Ndandinga ndiba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 



PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 229 

2. 

1. Ndaye ndinga ndiba nditeta. 

2. Ndaye ndiiiga ndiba ndateta. 

3. Xdaye ndinga ndiba ndibe nditeta. 

4. Ndaye ndinga ndiba nditetile. 

5. Ndaye ndinga ndiba ndibe nditetile. 

6. Ndaye ndinga ndiba ndiya knteta. 

7. Ndaye ndinga ndiba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

Imperfect tense. 

FIEST rOEAT. 

1. Ndibe ndingaba nditeta. 

2. Ndibe ndingaba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndibe ndingaba nditetile. 

4. Ndibe ndingaba ndibe nditetile. 

5. Ndibe ndingaba ndiya knteta. 

6. Ndibe ndingaba ndibe ndiya knteta. 

AUGHEyiED FOH3IS. 



1. Ndandibe ndingaba nditeta. 

2. Ndandibe ndingaba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndandibe ndingaba nditetile. 

4. Ndandibe ndingaba ndibe nditetile. 

5. ]S"dandibe ndingaba ndiya knteta. 

6. Ndandibe ndingaba ndibe ndiya knteta. 

2. 

1. Ndaye ndibe ndingaba nditeta. 

2. Ndaye ndibe ndingaba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndaye ndibe ndingaba nditetile. 

4. Ndaye ndibe ndingaba ndibe nditetile. 

5. Ndaye ndibe ndingaba ndiya knteta. 

6. Ndaye ndibe ndingaba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

SECOND TOEAI. 

1. Ndinga ndibe ndiba nditeta. 

2. Ndinga ndibe ndiba ndateta. 

3. Ndiuga ndibe ndiba ndibe nditeta. 

4. Ndinga ndibe ndiba nditetile. 



230 PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 

5. Ndinga ndibe ndiba ndibe nditetile. 

6. Ndinga ndibe ndiba ndiya kuteta. 

7. Ndinga ndibe ndiba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

AUGMENTED EOESIS. 
1. 

1. Ndandinga ndibe ndiba nditeta. 

2. Ndandinga ndibe ndiba ndateta. 

3. Ndandinga ndibe ndiba ndibe nditeta. 

4. Ndandinga ndibe ndiba nditetile. 

5. Ndandinga ndibe ndiba ndibe nditetile. 

6. Ndandinga ndibe ndiba ndiya kuteta. 

7. Ndandinga ndibe ndiba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

2. 

1. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiba nditeta. 

2. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiba ndateta. 

3. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiba ndibe nditeta. 

4. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiba nditetile. 

5. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiba ndibe nditetile. 

6. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiba ndiya kuteta. 

7. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

First Future tense. 

1. Ndinga ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndinga ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndinga ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndinga ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

AUGMENTED EOEilS. 

1. 

1. Ndandinga ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndandinga ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndandinga ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndandinga ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

2. 

1. Ndaye ndinga ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndaye ndinga ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndaye ndinga ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndaye ndinga ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 






PARADIGM OF A REGULAR VERB. 231 

Second Future tense. 

1. Ndinga ndibe ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndinga ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndinga ndibe ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndinga ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

AUGMENTED EOBJI8. 
1. 

1. Ndandinga ndibe ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndandinga ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndandinga ndibe ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. kdandinga ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

2. 

1. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiya kuba nditeta. 

2. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditeta. 

3. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiya kuba nditetile. 

4. Ndaye ndinga ndibe ndiya kuba ndibe nditetile. 

Subjunctive mood. 

Present tense. 

1. Ndibe nditeta. 

2. Ndibe nditetile. 

3. Ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

ATJGMEXTED POEMS. 

1. ^landibe nditeta. 

2. Mandibe nditetile. 

3. Mandibe ndiya kuteta. 

Aoris t tense. 

1. Ndakuba nditeta. 

2. Ndakuba ndateta. 

3. Ndakuba ndibe nditeta. 

4. Ndakuba nditetile. 

5. Ndakuba ndibe nditetile. 

6. Ndakuba ndiya kuteta. 

7. Ndakuba ndibe ndiya kuteta. 

276. The following tables exhibit a general view of the 



232 



TABULAR VIEW OF THE 



conjugation of a Kafir verb, throughout its several moods, 
participles, and tenses, in the third person, singular, of 
the first species, affirmative, which, from its distinctive 
character, may be regarded as a sort of key-form. Such 
tables will be found useful, in furnishing a comprehensive 
basis of exercise for the completion of each tense, through- 
out its different persons, species, and numbers, as well as 
for the addition of the several negative and contracted 
forms, and the notification of all variations, whether in 
roots, prefixes, or particular forms, according to the rules 
and remarks of the preceding sections on the verb. 



PS 

o 

(n 
P 

P 

o 

Ph 

o 
o 


e3 
43 

43 
















of 

43 

03 

o> 

03 

M 

o3 

!>-. 

o 


d 

of 

03 
43 
03 

T3 

03 
© 
03 
03 


A 

o 
o 

ft 
^~ 

M 

Eh 
<l 
O 

hH 
ft 

HH 

H 

w 

EH 

ft 

O 

OQ 

ft 
OQ 

EH 




1 

of 

43 
03 
43 
<B 

03 
o3 








uya kuba eteta, &c. 
waeya kuba eteta, <§-c. 
waye eya kuba eteta, &c. 


ube eya kuba eteta, &c. 
waebe eya kuba eteta, &c. 
waye ebe eya kuba eteta, &c. 


TO 

PS 

o 

tH 

A 
H 

H 

35 

p 


c3 


C3 
03 

•a 




c3 

■s 

43 


ed 

+3 


03 
03 

© 

JO 

0) 


03 

43 

03 
43 
03 


03 

03 

03 
03 

o 

,03 

& 

03 
El 


43 
03 

m 

43 

?-' 


e 

03 

"5 

o3 

T- 
o 
ja 

S3 

1 

ft 

nd 

1=1 

o 
o 

03 


e3 

-2 03 
03 >-» 
c3 03 




03 
03 

S « 

03 r^ 

03 
03 
^J 03 

03 >^ 

d o3 


03 

03 "S 

rd 43 
■43 <u 

42 03 
03 k-» 


03 
03 "S 

3» 

5 03 

°^ 
03 

^2 03 
03 >a 
C3 03 


c3 

43 
03 

St 

& 03 

n 


e3 

43 
03 

St 

03 r^ 

^03 

03 « 

03 >» 
c3 c3 


TO 

PS 
o 

Pm 

TO 


c3 

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IREEaULAR VEEBS. 



277. No separate paradigm is required for this class of 
verbs, as the following rules will be found amply sufficient 
for the direction of the learner. 



F F 



234, 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



MONOSYLLABIC VERBS. 



278. The root prefixes yi to form the imperative mood. 
Thus :— 



SING. 

Tiva, Sear 
Yiza, Come 
Yimba, Big 



ROOT 



PLTJR. 

Yivani, Sear ye 
Yizarri, Come ye 
Yimbani, Big ye 

279. The present participle, both in its simple and de- 
rivative uses, inserts si between the affirmative prefixes and 
the root. 



va 
za 
mba 



Present 


Partici 


pie . 




AIT.- 1 


"hearing, Sfc. 


PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




Ndmva 


Smva 


II 




TJsivsb 


Nmva 


III 


1 


Esiva 


~Besiva. 


... 


2 


Lisiiva 
&c. 


Es&va 



Imperfect tense, Indicative. 

Air.- I was hearing, Sfe. 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




Bendima 


BesmYa 


II 




UbimVa 


Benisiva 


III 


1 


Ebmva 


Bebesiva 


... 


2 


Belisiva 
&c. 


Ebesiva 



Present tense, Potential 

ait.- I ivould or should hear, Sfc. 



ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


I 




NgendiszVa 


NgesiszVa 


II 




Ngeusiva 


Ngenmva 


III 


1 


Ngemva 


Ngebesiva 


... 


2 


Ngeliwva 
&c. 


jNgeesiva 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 235 

1. But if a verbal medial is inserted, or the verbial sa 

(§ 296), the si is omitted. As : — 

Ndibe ndi/iva ; I heard it. 

TJsafa j He is still sick. 

% The passive voice of monosyllabic verbs, though with 
a dissyllabic root, occasionally conforms to the above rule. 
Thus:— 

Evile kus/tiwa Having heard it said. 

The Substantive veeb. 

280. The monosyllabic verb ba, to be, usually termed 
the substantive verb, is distinguished by certain peculiari- 
ties which require notice. 

1. Nouns and pronouns when preceded by the substan- 
tive verb, take their euphonic letters x before them according 
to § 54, 3, ix. The forms which they assume in this con- 
nexion may be seen by referring to their several causal 
forms. The following examples will suffice for illustration. 



Ndingewrfimi ndedwa; 
J&nguye otandileyo tina j 
Ndiragwlowo opendklayo ; 
E«°okonzayo ; 
Sasiwgamanqina tina j 
Beli/ilizwe elihle j 
Zibe zidzicaka ; 



It not being I only. 
Being he who hath loved us. 
I am that one who searcheth. 
Being one who serves. 
And we are witnesses. 
It was a fine country. 
They were servants. 



But nouns with dissyllabic prefixes, especially those of the nu- 
meral class, frequently elide their initial vowel instead of taking 
the euphonic letters. After the negative forms of the substantive 
verb, this usage prevails with nouns in general. 

2. The present, Indicative, and the present participle, 
both in its simple and derivative uses, usually omit their 
verbal root, in which circumstances the prefixes pass on to 
the following word. Thus : — 



JVdmgunintu ; (for Ndiba ngumntu ;) 
Zmaniandhla ; (for Liba namandhla ;) 
^ges/nokwoyika j (for Isgoslba no- 
kwojikaj) 



I am a man. 

It is with power. 

We ought to be with fear. 



236 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



And of men not a few. 
He also was not present. 
It was not he. 



When the negative prefixes which terminate in nga are 
thus used, their final vowel is changed into e. As : — 

Nakumadoda lalinge linani elincinane 
"Wayebengeko naye ; 
Ebengenguye ; 

This change does not take place before the verbial sa, as this 
is affected by a similar one in the same circumstances (§ 296). In 
one or two other instances, also, the a is used ; as, for example, 
in the phrase, into enganto, a thing of nought. 

3. The aorist, Indicative, the aorist participle, and the 
first form of the present, Potential, also, sometimes omit 
the verbal root. As : — 



U-Yehova wonaye u-Yosefe ; 
Lwanga lungako ufefe kuni nonke; 



The Lord was with Joseph. 
Grace be with you all. 



N. B. The preceding rides with regard to the omission of the verbal root 
ba, do not apply to the substantive verb when employed in the formation of 
the Compound forms of the tenses, or when used hypotlieticalltj (§ 370). 

4. The substantive verb, in connexion with a noun or 
pronoun in the conjunctive form, expresses the verb to 
have. Thus: — ■ 



Ndinayo lonto ; 
Ndoba nalo uncedo ; 
Unamahashe amaninzi ; 
Akanabulumko ; 
Ebenabantwana bangapina ? 
Bebengenabubele ; 



I am with, or have, that thing. 

I shall be with, or shall have, help. 

He is with, or has, many horses. 

He is not with, or has not, wisdom. 

How many cliildren had he ? 

They were not with, or had not, pity. 



i. The noun in this construction, when the substantive 
verb is preceded by the relative pronoun, sometimes under- 
goes contraction by the elision of the prefix na and its 
initial vowel, to express whose. Thus : — 



Umntu ondhlu (for onendhlu) 

inkulu ; 
Inkosi emikwa (for enemihwa) 

ndiyitandayo ; 
Abamlomo (for Abanomlomo ) 

uzele kukutuka ; 

3ngogama ( for ~Engoncgama ) 
lingu-Yudasi ; 



A man who is ( with ) a large 
house ; i. e. whose house &c. 

A chief who is (with) ways I 
like ; i. e. whose ways &c. 

Who are (with) a mouth full of 
cursing ; i. e. whose mouth 
is full &c. 

Being he whose name was Ju- 
das. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



237 



Iramnco elinxela ( for elinc 
nxeba ) lapoliswayo ; 



A beast Avhose deadly wound 
was healed. 



Tlie relative pronoun is usually omitted after the noun in this 
usage, whether as part of the prefix of a following adjective, or as 
nominative or object to a succeeding verb, as in the preceding 
examples. 

ii. The personal pr on ovn in the above construction, un- 
dergoes a similar inflection to verbs of the Relative 
form, in order to express to have for, in connexion with the 
interrogative nina. The first species, singular, changes its 
final vowel into ele, whilst the other forms change their's 
into olo. Thus : — 



Spec. 1, sing.- Unaye7<? nina ? 
... 2, sing.- TJwdloh nina ? 
... 3, sing- TJimyolo nina ? 
... 4, sing.- Unastf/o nina ? 



Tou have him for what ? 
You have it for what ? 
Tou have it for what ? 
You have it for what ? 



&c. 

These forms, however, are seldom heard, and only in the collo- 
quial style. When they are used, it is for the purpose of ques- 
tioning or disputing the right of possession to the object referred 
to. As : — 

Unalolo nina elohashe? "vVh at right have you to that horse ? 

The verb Ti. 

281. The monosyllabic verb ti, to be or do so, is often 
found in combination with certain verbal particles, which 
particularize the kind of being or action referred to, but 
without themselves being affected either by conjugation or 
government. The several particles which are thus used, 
always immediately follow ti as in the succeeding formulas 
and examples. 

Present tense, Indicative. 
ait.- I (do so — ) suddenly disappear, fyc. 



PER.S. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


PLUK. 


I 




K"diti shwaka 


Siti shwaka 


II 




Uti shwaka 


Mti shwaka 


III 


1 


Uti shwaka 


Bati shwaka 




2 


Liti shwaka 
&c. 


Ati shwaka 



238 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Perfect tense, Indicative. 

AFF.- I have (done so—) suddenly disappeared, §c. 

SPEC. 



PERS. 
I 
II 
III 



SING. 

N"dite skwaka 
Ute shwaka 
Ute shwaka 
Lite skwaka 
&c. 

Examples. 



plttk. 
Site skwaka 
Nite skwaka 
Bate shwaka 
Ate skwaka 



Wati kulwandhle, Tutu ! yiti civaka ; 

Sakuti tya ngapezulu ; 

Kwada kwati qip ukusa ; 

!Nxa kuti ncwuzi ; 

Basitele nqa isifundiso sate ; 

Zatlwa sa njengezirnvu ezingenama- 

lusi ; 
Inecnya etwe Uju ngasemzhnbeniwayo ; 

Ize yakubabamba ibati tyumzi ngoku- 
banyatela j 



He said unto tke sea, Peace ! be still. 

When we arrived at the top. 

Till break of day. 

When it is twilight. 

They were astonished at his doctrine. 

They were scattered abroad, as sheep 

haying no shepherd. 
Having a linen cloth cast about bis 

body. 
And when it catches them, it tramples 

them to pieces. 

1. The particles which are thus compounded with ti, are 
generally remnants of primitive verbs, many of which are 
still in regular use, whilst others are only found in deriva- 
tive forms. 

i. Of tke former class, are jadu from jadulca, ccamfa from oca- 
mffoza, tyum and tyumzi from tyumza, nama from namata, gqobo 
from gqoboka, nqam from nqamktt, pefio from pefamla, qip and 
qipit from qipula, badJiIa from badhluza, &c. 

ii. Of the latter, are taru from taruza, as in taritzisa ; tu from 
tutuza, as in tutuzela ; cuJcu from cukama, as in cuhumisa ; nqw 
from nquba, as in nqubeka ; &c. 

iii. Some of these particles appear to come immediately from 
derivative forms. As, nqivale from nqivaleka, nlclite from nldite- 
ka, &c. 

iv. Others, again, preserve tke same form, whether used as reg- 
ular verbs, or in combination with ti. As zola, tsliabalala, nqii- 
mama, 1-aJila, cwaha, sJiiccnya, &c. 

v. Some,, moreover, are found in tke reduplicated state of tkeir 
apocopated roots. As tyoboiyobo from lyoboza, pitipiti Uom pitiza, 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



239 



rwatsliarwatslia from ncatsliaza, badabada from badaza, as in 
badazela ; &c. 

A few of these particles are occasionally used as independent verbs, follow- 
ing the analogies of rowel verbs according to § 2S9. Thus : — 



Kwctu kanye ukutshabalala ; 
ATaxela, kwema kwenql ke : 



The desolation was complete. 
He commanded, and it stood fast. 



2. Some of the particles with which the verb ti combines, 
are sometimes employed independently, in a kind of inter- 
ject'wnal manner. In such circumstances, the particular 
application of the action which they express, will depend 
upon the connexion in which they are used. The follow- 
ing example will be a sufficient illustration. 

There they are ! already broken 
through into the midst — strike ! 
strike! strike! the horses in wrath 
trampling down the people, striking 



Kanzo ! sezigqobozele pakati — fixi ! 
fixi! fixi! amahashe ngomsindo 
enyatela abantu, ebeta ngempupu — 
badhlu! badhlu! badhlu! qwenge! 
qwenge ! qwenge ! ngentshuntshe 
zaseniacaleni ; 



with their hoofs — piercing! pier- 
cing ! piercing ! tearing ! tearing ! 
tearing ! with the swords at their 
sides. 



VOWEL VERBS. 



282. The root prefixes y to form the imperative mood, the 
final vowel of the prothetic yi being thus elided. As : — 



Yaka, Build 
Yenza, Make 
Yoyika, Fear 



PLUS. 

Yakani, Build ye 
Yenzani, Malce ye 
Yoyikani, Fear ye 



BOOT. 

aka 

enza 

oyika 



283. The present participle inserts s between the af- 
firmative prefixes and verbal root, the final vowel of the pa- 
ragogic si being dropped. 

Present Participle. 

Air.- I building, $'c. 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


sisa. 


plue. 


I 




Xdisaka 


Sisaka 


II 




Usaka 


Xisaka 


III 


1 


Esaka 


Besaka 


... 


2 


Lisaka 
&c. 


Esaka 



240 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Imperfect tense, Indicative 

u?T.-Iioas making, 8fc. 



ERS. 


SPEC. 


SING-. 


PLTTE. 


I 




Ndibe ndisenza 


Sibe sisenza 


II 




Ube usenza 


Nibe nisenza 


III 


1 


Ube esenza 


Babe besenza 


... 


2 


Libe lisenza 
&c. 


Abe esenza 



Present tense, Potential. 

AJP~E.-Iwould or should fear, Sfc. 



Singe sisoyika 
Ninge nisoyika 
Bange besoyika 
Ange esoyika 



284. The verbal prefixes and auxiliary roots which end 
in «, e, or i, drop their final vowel. As : — 



PERS. 


SPEC. 


SING. 


I 




Ndinge ndisoyika 


II 




Unge usoyika 


III 


1 


Ange esoyika 


... 


2 


Linge lisoyika 
&e. 



Ndiyaka (for Ndiyaaka) ; 
Ndenza (for Ndaenza) ; 
Ndenzile (for Ndienzile) ; 
Andingoyike (for Andingeoyike : 



I am building. 
I made. 
I have made. 
I cannot fear. 



285. The verbal prefixes which terminate in u, change 
this into w ; except those of the sixth species, singular, neg- 
ative form, and those of the seventh species, both affirma- 
tive and negative, where u is dropped. Thus : — 



Ukwoyika (for Ukuoyika) ; 
Ndiya kwenza (for Ndiya kuenza) ; 
Akwazi na (for akuazi na) ? 
Awomile (for Awuomile) j 
Benzile (for B^enzile) : 
Abazanga (for Abwazanga) ; 



To fear. 
I will make. 
Do you not know ? 
It is not dry. 
It has made. 
It did not know. 



1. The final u, also, of the prefixes 7cu and uhu, is occasionally 
dropped before vowel roots commencing with o. As : — 



Kwoyikwa or Koyikwa ; 

Iya kwongezwa or Iya kongezwa ; 

Kwakwohlwayiwa or Kwakohlwayiwa; 



There is feared. 
They shall be added to. 
When there is reproved. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



241 



2. The final u of the prefixes aivu, bu, and abu, is dropped be- 
fore vowel roots, because w is incompatible with the preceding 
consonant. 

286. The verbal prefixes which consist of a single vowel, 
are changed into their corresponding consonants, when used 
before vowel verbal roots. But a usually coalesces with the 
initial vowel of the root (§ 37, 2), unless it be preceded by 
the relative pronoun as nominative, in which case it ob- 
serves the same rule as the others. Thus : — 



Fomile {for Iomile) ; 
JFakile {for Uakile) ; 
JFenzile {for TTenzile) ; 
Oyike {for Aoyike) ; 
Into e^oyikekayo {for eioyikekayo) ; 
Umntu owazekileyo {for ouazekileyo) ; 
Amandhla owonganiileyo {for oaonga- 
mileyo ) ; 



It is dry. 

Thou hast built. 

He has made. 

That he should fear. 

A thing which is terrible. 

A person who is known. 

Power which is the highest. 



1. The present prefix a, however, occasionally passes into w, as 
in the following examples : — 



Aze okohlakeleyo «?eyele kona ; 
Yena uyadhla, abuye wosule umlomo 
wake: 



And the wicked falleth into it. 
She eateth, and wipeth her mouth. 



2. The aorist prefix a, which is formed by the coalition of the 
present prefix a, and the affix a (§ 264, 2), is restored to its full 
form, when preceded by the relative pronoun, the former a passing 
into w according to the usual custom. Thus : — 

Amahashe au-ahambayo {for Horses which walked, 

aaahambayo) ; 

3. When the contracted form of the auxiliary ya is used before 
vowel verbal roots, the final o is heard twice, first in its vowel 
sound, and then in its consonantal one. Thus : — 



Wowamkela 'nto nina ? 
So^enje njanina ukuzilungisa ? 



What will you receive ? 

How shall we clear ourselves ? 



287. The rules contained in the three preceding sections, 
do not apply to the present participle, or its derivatives, bein^ 
prevented by § 283. Neither does the last rule (§ 286) ap- 

G G 



242 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

ply to the perfect participle, in the case of the prefix e, as 
this coalesces with the initial vowel of the verbal root, ac- 
cording to § 37, 2. 

Hence, some of the vowel forms of the contracted pluperfect 
tense, admit of a still further contraction, on account of the co- 
alescence of the participial prefix with the initial vowel of the root : 
As, eboyikile for ebeoyiJcile. 

288. When the verbal medial, or the verbial sa, is in- 
serted in the verb, the several rules apply to these, and the 
prefix retains its full and regular form. Thus : — 

Ndibe ndiyenza( for Ndiyienza) ; 
Unge ubazi (for Ubaazi) ; 
Ndiyaloyika (for Ndiyab'oyika) ; 
Asingezoyike (for Asingezioyike) ; 



ISTdokwenza (for Ndokuenza) ; 
TJbenzile (for Ubwenzile) ; 
Uwazile (for Uwwazile) ; 
TJsaka (for TJsaaka) ; 



I was making it. 

You ought to know them. 

I fear it. 

We cannot fear them. 

I will do it. 

He has made it. 

He has known it. 

He is yet building. 



289. The following verbs were originally vowel verbs 
commencing with e ; namely, ba, to steal ; Ida, to descend ; 
ma, to stand ; mba, to dig ; mka, to depart ; nyuka, to as- 
cend ; saba, to flee ; saka, to arise ; tiika, to startle ; va, 
to hear ; za, to come ; and a few others. According to 
present usage, they are only treated as vowel verbs, after 
prefixes and auxiliary roots which end in a, though not in- 
variably so even in these circumstances. Thus : — 



Ndehla (for Ndaehla) ; 
Ndiyeva (for ISTdiyaeva) ; 
Kdingeza (for ISTdingaeza) ; 
Eze ( for Aeze) ; 
Satuka or Setuka ; 
Wanyuka or Wenyuka ; 



I descended. 

I am hearing. 

I may come. 

That he should come. 

We startled. 

He ascended. 



In other respects these verbs are treated like all others of 
the class to which their roots, as given above, assign 
them. 

IDIOMATIC YEKBS. 

290. As the distinctive character of this class of verbs 



OF THE PARTICLES. 213 

does not arise out of any peculiarity of a formal nature, 
their particular consideration belongs to another and sub- 
sequent part of the grammar. The following observations 
only will be necessary here : — 

1. Verbs are termed Idiomatic verbs, when some pecu- 
liar construction is involved in their use with others. 

2. In these circumstances, they have chiefly an adverbial 
or conjunctional force with respect to signification. 

3. In regard to conjugation they have nothing to distin- 
guish them as a class. In two or three instances, however, 
a few variations occur, as will be seen hereafter. See §§ 
54>i—566. 



OF THE PARTICLES. 

291. The Kafir particles consist of Verbials, Prefixes, 
Affixes, Expletives, Interrogatives, Adverbs, Prepositions, 
Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

VEEBIALS. 

292. The verbials include such particles as are only 
used in combination with verbs, the signification of which 
they serve to modify, and a few others which of themselves 
express verbal ideas. 

ASI. 

293. Asi is a negative verbial, expressing the indefinite 
sense of it is not, or they are not. Nouns and pronouns take 
their euphonic letters after this particle, in the same way as 
after the substantive verb. But the former sometimes elide 



their initial vowel instead. 


Thus 


— 


Asi e-Efese yodwa ; 






It is not at Ephesus alone 


Asi ngotixo ; 






They are not gods. 


Asi 'mntu; 






It is not a man. 


Asi nguye ; 






ft is not he. 


Asi lilo ; 






It is not it. 


Asi yiyo ; 






It is not it. 



244 



VERBIAL PARTICLES. 



Asi is sometimes used with a strong affirmative force, to 
denote a high degree of comparison. Thus : — 

Asi ngumntu ukulunga ; 
Amazinyo ayo asi ngavvo nama 
zinvo ; 



Asi nokuba uneratshi 



He is a very good man. 

Its teetb are of an extraordinary 

size. 
You are very proud. 



KA. 



294. Ka, a derivative of the verb ka, to dip, is inserted 
between the negative verbal prefixes and the root, in the 
sense of yet. As : — 



Anifctqondi na ? 

Ukugqibela akuAv/biko ; 
EbeugeAafiki oko ; 
Kgokuba ubungeAabaweli nam- 
nye; 



Do ye not yet understand ? 
The end is not yet. 
He had not then arrived. 
For as yet he was fallen upon 
none of them. 



Its most frequent use is with some of the participles, when 
it serves to express before, as in the following examples: — 

Before they came together. 

Before ye ask him. 

Before the time. 

Before he was far from the house. 



Enge/cahlangani naye ; 
Kwa ningeA-rtceli kuye ; 
Ixesha lingeAv/biko ; 
EngeA-«bi kude endhlwini ; 
Ovelisa ilizwi engeAavru- 
qondi umcimbi ; 

1. The prefixes which terminate in nga, change the final a into 
e before this particle. 

2. "When the verbal medial is used with the verb, ha is inserted 
between the prefix and that. 



He that answeretk a matter be- 
fore he heareth it. 



KO. 



295. Ko, a derivative of kona in its adverbial application 
(§ 343) is affixed to the substantive verb, whenever the idea 
of presence is intended to be expressed or implied. As : — - 

He was here yesterday. 



EbeAo izolo ; 
Akui-o 'mntu ; 
KwabaAo ; 
£s T diya kubaA-o : 



There is no one. 
There were present. 
I shall be present. 



1. The substantive verb when thus used with ko, takes 



VERBIAL PARTICLES. 



245 



the affix yo like other verbs, if preceded by the relative pro- 
noun. As : — 

Abantu abakoyo ; People who are present. 

Izinto ez'ikoyo ; Things which are present. 

2. The negative infinitive of the substantive verb, is some- 
times found in a contracted compound form, when used with 
ko. Thus, ukubangabiko for ukuba kungabiko, to be not 
being present. 

3. The k of the negative prefix aku, eighth species, is 
sometimes dropped, when followed by ko. As: — 

Is there no other penitent ? 
There is no such person here. 
There is no straw given unto thy 
servants. 



Auko 'gqoboka limbi na ? 

Auko 'mntu onjalo apa ; 

Auko 'nnca inikelwa izicaka zako 



4. Nouns and pronouns do not take their euphonic let- 
ters before them, when the substantive verb is followed by 
ko. 

5. Ko sometimes undergoes inflection like the verb tsho, 
to enable the substantive verb to express to be present for. 
(Compare § 280, 4, ii.) Thus :— 



Ziko/o utanJo lwako ; 

Ukuba sibeko/o ixeska eliza 
kuza; 



They are present for thy plea- 
sure. 

That it should be present a- 
gainst the time to come. 



SA. 

296. Sa, a derivative of the verb sala, is inserted in the 
affirmative forms of the tenses, to denote that the verbal ac- 
tion is, or was, yet performing, or would yet be performed. 
In the negative forms of the tenses, it denotes that the ver- 
bal action would be performed no more or no longer. 

The final vowel of sa is changed into e, when used with the sub- 
stantive verb without its verbal root. 

297. In the present and past tenses, sa is inserted imme- 
diately before the verbal root. As: — 



TTyihlo usflhleli na ? 
Is xa asanduMa : 



Is your father yet alive ? 
While he sent away. 



246 



VERBIAL PARTICLES, 



Ngokuba bengaseko ; 
Ayis«fanelekele 'nto ; 
Xa abesazitetelela njalo ; 

Nxa ebengasenako ukuba angam- 
fihla; 



Because they are not. 
It is no longer fit for anything. 
And as he thus spake for himself. 
When she could no longer hide 
him. 



298. In the future tenses, sa is inserted between the pre- 
fix and root of the auxiliary ya. As : — 



Anisoyi kubuya niboneubuso banii; 
Zisaya kutenga zona, wafika urn- 
yeni; 



Ye shall see my face no more. 
While they went to buy, the bride- 
groom came. 



1. The root of the auxiliary ya is often omitted from the 
future tenses, when used with sa. As : — 



Andi.?akuteta {for Andisayi kuteta) 
Be.sakuinka {for Besaya kumka) ; 



I will speak no more or no longer. 
Being yet to depart. 



2. In the contracted form of the first future tense, sa is 
inserted between the auxiliary and the verbal root. As : — ■ 

Umhlaumbi wosalazi eloculo ; Perhaps she Avill still know that hymn. 

3. When sa is used with the negative first future, Indic- 
ative, of the verb za, in its idiomatic usage (§ 566), a con- 
traction sometimes takes place by changing sayi into so. 
Sometimes, also, the infinitive prefix is omitted as well, in 
which case the final vowel of za is changed into i. As : — 



Andisokuza ndilipose xamnye napaka- 
de ; {for Andisayi kuza &c.) 

Akasozi amfumane ngobulumko ; {for 
Akasayi kuza &c.) 

Abalungisayo abasozi {for abasayi 
kuza) banyotulwe ; 



I will never throw it aside. 

He will never compete with him in 
skill. 

The righteous shall never be removed. 



A similar contraction occasionally occurs when sa is used with 
the substantive verb. For example : — 

Ayisoba nobubelc ngakumbi na ? Will he be favourable no more? 

299. In the compound forms of the tenses, sa is inserted 
in the participle following the substantive verb. As: — 



Inga iba i,?«hleli kwada kwanainhla 
Ange engabi esadhla ubomi ; 



It would have remained until this 

day. 
He ought not to live any longer. 



VERBIAL PARTICLES. 



247 



1 . The present participial prefixes are frequently dropped 
in this construction, as in the following examples : — 



Jesus therefore walked no more 

openly. 
Neither shall all flesh be cut off 



Ngoko u-Yesu akaba sahamba {for 

esahamba) ekuhleni ; 
Kanjalo innyama yonke ayiyi kuba 

srmqanyulwa {for isanqanyulwa) ; 
Ukuze ndingabi senza {for ndisenza) 

imilenibelele kuwe ; 

When the substantive verb is followed by another verb in the 
present, Subjunctive, the prefixes of this are sometimes elided in 
a similar manner. As : — 



any more. 
That I be not further tedious to 
thee. 



Masiti ke ngoko singabi sagwebane 
(for sisagwebane) ; 



Let us not therefore judge one 
another any more. 



2. In the negative compound form of the first future, In- 
dicative, sa is sometimes used both with the substantive 
verb and the following participle, for the sake of emphasis: 
as, Andisayi kuba s&ya, I shall go no more : literally, I 
shall no more be yet going. 

3. The compound forms of the tenses are more frequently 
employed with this verbial than the simple forms. The 
substantive verb itself is often thus used in connexion with 
sa, In which case the root, as well as the prefix, of the 
participle may be omitted. When the root is not omitted, 
its final vowel is sometimes changed into i, like the negative 
verbal root of the aorist, Indicative (§ 234-, 1). As : — 

Kanjalo igama lako aliyi kuba sa,ba 

nguye u-Abrame ; 
Ngokuba unsebe selilo igosa ; 



Xeshekweni sibe singebe senako uku- 

nyamezela ; 
Ababa senakukalipa kwokumbuza 'nto ; 

Ayeya kuti amanzi angabi sabl nguwo 

umsinga ; 
Xwada akwabi sa^iko 'ndawo yokubu- 

ta; 



Neither shall thy name any more be 

Abram. 
For thou mayest be no longer steward. 
When we could no longer forbear. 



They had no longer any courage to ask 

him any thing. 
And the waters shall no more become 

a flood. 
Insomuch that there was no room to 

receive them. 



SUKUBA. 

300. Suhtba is a compound verbial, being derived from 



248 



VERBIAL PARTICLES. 



suka and iikuba, and signifies, accordingly, to happen to be. 
It denotes a kind of contingency to be connected with the 
performance of the action of a following verb, either in re- 
ference to the subject', or in reference to some circumstance, 
as that of time, place, &c, in relation to it; and is generally 
employed, therefore, where any of these are spoken of, 
without being individuated or particularized. 

1 . The present verbal prefixes are used with this verbial, 
which are, in fact, the prefixes of the verb suka, from which 
it is in part derived. The following verb is generally found 
in one of the participles, but sometimes in other forms, ac- 
cording to the sense intended. 

2. The prefixes of sukuba, however, are often omitted af- 
ter an adverbial or conjunctional particle ; and sometimes, 
also, after the relative pronoun. 

3. Sukuba is also used in the still further contracted 
forms of suba and sub\ 



Abasukuba bcya kuba behleli ; 
Itamsanqa lomntu osukuba u-Tixo eni- 

balcla ukulunga ; 
Osukuba angamkela oku ; 
Oko asuba eya kiiteta kuni ; 
Ukuba kusukuba kufe umiitu ; 
Abo nisukuba nibafumene ; 
Kdokulandela apo usukuba uliambela 

kona ; 
Into usukuba unxiba yona; 
Lo usuba emoyika ; 
Abasukuba arnagama abo engabalwa- 

nga enncwadini yobonii ; 
Xeshekweni sukuba ndityelwa into ; 
Kwakuya kuti bonke asukuba bendi- 

bona bandibulale ; 
IyakaKIela zonke into isiib' iMangana 

nazo xa ibalekayo ; 



"V\Tiosoever shall be living. 

The blessedness of the man, unto 

whom Grod imputeth righteousness. 
He that is able to receive it. 
What he will say to you. 
If a man should die. 
As many as ye shall find. 
I will follow thee whithersoever thou 

goest. 
"Whatsoever thou shalt bind. 
He that feareth him. 
Whose names are not written in the 

book of life. 
Whenever I am told any thing. 
And it shall come to pass, that every 

one that findeth me shall slay me. 
It throws down every thing it meets 

with in its flight. 



The literal rendering of these examples will be sufficiently obvi- 
ous, if the derivation of sukuba is borne in mind. 



301. The remaining particles which may be included 



POSSESSIVE PARTICLES, 



249 



under this head, such as Ete, Hand hither; Inct, Come 
hither ; &c, require no particular illustration. 

PEEFIXES. 

302. The prefixes include the possessive and a few other 
particles, which are thus used to modify the signification 
of some of the other parts of speech. 

POSSESSIVE PARTICLES. 

303. The possessive particles express some of the more 
usual senses attached to of, and vary in form according to 
the species and number of the governing noun. They are 
derived by prefixing the several euphonic letters to the 
vowel a, as in the following table: — 



SPEC. 1 


SPEC. 2 


SPEC. 3 


SPEC. 4 


SPEC. 5 


SPEC. 6 


SP. 

7 


SP. 

8 


s. 


PL. 


s. 


PL. 


S. 


PL. 


s. 


PL. 


s. 


PL. 


s. 


PL. 


wa 


ba 


la 


a 


ya 


za 


sa 


za 


lwa 


za 


vf-a, 


ya 


ba 


kwa 



1 . The final a of these particles, when used before words be- 
ginning with a vowel, coalesces with this according to § 37, 3. 

Hence a is entirely lost sight of before words with initial a, 
e 7 or o, as in the following examples : — 



Aniahashe abantu ; 
Aniankla ezontaba ; 
Amadoda olohlobo ; 



Horses of the people. 

The tops of those mountains. 

Men of that kind. 



2. When the possessive particle a is preceded by another 
prefix, the euphonic letter a, instead of coalescing with the 
affixed a, as in the above table, changes into iv. As : — 

Badikwe ngawabo amaqinga ; And be filled ^vith their own de-vices. 

Amaza engangawolwandhle ; TTaTes like those of the sea. 

3. The possessive particles are used in the formation of 
the possessive and some of the compound forms of nouns 
and pronouns, according to rules which have already been 
sufficiently stated and exemplified. They are also used be- 
fore other parts of speech, as will be seen hereafter. 

304. The following table contains the nominal prefixes, 
with all their several kinds of prefixual and medial deriva- 

H H 



250 TABLE OF ALLITERAL PARTICLES. 

tives, the whole together forming a complete view of the 
alliteral particles of the language. 





o 

W 00 


3 

ri4 


2 * 


2 


e3 

Is 


2 

r« 


e o3 
8 ^ 


pi 

r!4 






3 






r« 




^ r^ 






on 




r^ 












i^ 


rQ 


rQ 


P" 


03 


P 
rQ 


2 03 

rgrQ 


PI 

rQ 


CO 


h5 


1 


•« K 


"£» 


03 
r»3> 


•h "I 


•s ^ 


*i>» 




o 

02 

O 


















9Q 


a 

pi 


* |s |P 


5 bJO 
£ 38 


% 


» i 




pi 

is 


Ph 


.si 


SI 


• r-l 

SI 


o3 

SJ 


H S N 


.2 * 

N S3 


"3 


o 


en 


















CO 


J3 

p 


•5 J5 


J3 


eg 
jS 


^P 


2 i 


r^ 


^ 


4 








o3 


• r-4 


•S * 


• rH 


Ph 


6 


Ph 












N N 




















P 


Ph 


w 


;s 


on 


02 


o3 
en 


'to 


? oa 


*s 


r< 




















i— i 

H 


CO 
d 

02 


h3 

Ph 


.3.1 

S3 S3 


SJ 


'n 


03 
S3 


.H.fi S 


• S 03 


S3 


02 


.a.§ 


■* !>» 


•r-t 


o3 


.H .« .8 


« e3 


'£» 


CM 


v4 

Ph 


«3 




g£ 


§* I 


• 03 | 


§ * a 


i 




d 




o3 


8 








CO 






















3D 


w 


£j 


'-' 


- 


03 


^ 


r|r^ 


rd 


rH 

d 


Ph 


e3 
03 


.n* 


J| 


o3 

rQ 


►O rQ 


« 03 


03 

Q 






8»S 














pa 

Ph 


02 


1 


»►* 




03 

is 


50 g 




a 










§p 












6^ 

O GQ 


* 1 


d 


"3 




'3 




'p 








3 










o« 






'*■ 








§g 


pi 

rtd 


WW 


03 




s IS bo 


* S" 




p! 


XI. 


2PH 








$p 










7 


<0D 


•4 

Ph 




OQ 


'w 




*0Q 


■ii 


*Q0 




w 




H flN 




H CO 


^3 


a o3 

rg T3 


P 


W 72 






02 






iH 








© M 


© g 


02 


-p 


-P 




wo 




,o g 


,S el 


1-3 


© 
© 

rH 


02 




H rd 

W M 


02 

M 

H 


pq e 


© ro 

fqg 

o 


o 

9 


o 

<1 


m 
•< 


Ph 






Ph 






fi 










Ph 
Hi 


o 

H 

o 


H 
H 
H 

Hi 


m 
xn. 


r^ 

Ph 


02 

H 
rH 


r^ 




^3 


3 
O 
tea 


Ph 


02 
OQ 
O 

Ph 




P^ 

Ph 


ll 


























r4 



«8 CSJ rS 



CO 




CM 


N 






CO 

o 

CO 


CD 
00 






H 


<M 




CO 

o 

CO 


COO 




p 

o 


o 












nd 


9 y 


o 


i s 

lO O 


bO 


rxa 




C-CO-rH 


^-J oo^rrj 


O 
o 
o 
e3 


DO Q. 






a 




U rQ rH 


o 


p 1 ° 


w 


02 W 


HNrt 



PREFIXES. 251 

KA. 

305. Ka, with the signification of, is used in the forma- 
tion of the second possessive form of personal nouns, ac- 
cording to § 104. 

In compound words which are formed by contraction (§ 60), 
Tea is sometimes heard before personal pronouns, instead of the 
possessive particle. As : — 

Umntu nomfrake {for nomfazi take) . . . . A man and his wife. 

306. Ka is prefixed to nouns and adjectives in the for- 
mation of numeral and other adverbs. As : — 

Kabird, twice from lini, two. 

AT^sibozo, eight times . . . from isibozo, eight. 

AT^kulu, greatly from Jculu, great. 

ATamnandi, pleasantly ... from mnandi, pleasant. 

1. When prefixed to numeral nouns of the second species, 
singular, the euphonic letter is inserted after ka. As : — 

Aahshumi, ten times from isliumi, ten. 

2. Ka is sometimes prefixed to the indefinite form of ad- 
jectives, having monosyllabic roots. As: — 

ATakubi, evilly from hi, evil. 

A#kuhle, gently from hie, gentle. 

307. Ka is also occasionally prefixed to adverbs with an 
intensitive or conjunctive force. As : — 

ATakaloku, immediately from halolcu, now. 

Aakadeske, and for ever from hadeslie, for ever. 

KU. 

308. Ku is used in the formation of the dative form of pro- 
nouns, and also in that of the second dative form of nouns. 
It expresses the several significations stated in § 106, and 
varies in its usage. according to the initial letter of the word 
to which it is prefixed. 

1. If the word commence with a, the final vowel of ku is changed 
into iv, or the initial a is dropped : as ; & icabantu and &zd)antu, 
#wamadoda and fomiadoda, 



252 PREFIXES. 

The latter mode sometimes involves the loss of a relative pronoun : as, 7«fba- 
kulu, A7<balimgileyo. 

2. If the word begin with e, leu is generally changed into lew ; 
as kweli, kivezo : but the initial e is occasionally dropped, as in 
Z^dohashe. 

3. Before words commencing with i, leu is always changed into 
lew; as, &tt?inkosi, /jwasicaka. 

4. "When the initial letter is o, the final vowel of leu is some- 
times changed into w, and sometimes dropped ; as /^^onyana and 
&onyana, lewdko and &oko, fcwomkvlu. and /jomkulu, Z;w;olimgileyo 
and 76'olimgile3^o : occasionally, also, the initial o is dropped after 
leu, as in leunysma,. 

5. When the initial letter is «, it is always dropped; as leum- 
fazi, kumti, leufeie. 

6. Before words beginning with a consonant, leu preserves its 
own form ; as leuje, leuho, leulowo. But letvi occurs instead of leu, 
before some of the forms of the indefinite adjective mbi, and like- 
wise before similar forms of the interrogative pronoun pina. Com- 
pare §§ 111 and 338. 

309. Ku is prefixed to the roots of numeral adjectives to 
express distribution. As: — 

Kubiwi, in two from hini, two. 

Kutixtw, in three from tatu, three. 

KWA. 

310. Kwa is used in the formation of the locative form 
of nouns and pronouns, according to §§112; 165, 3; and 
172, 3. 

NGA. 

311. Nga is used in the formation of the instrumental 
form of nouns and pronouns, as well as in that of some of 
their compound forms, and in connexion with which its 
several significations and usages have been stated. 

312. Nga is often prefixed to prepositions and adverbs 
with an intensitive or expletive force: As, ??£Y*pantsi from 
pant si, ngasese from ese, ??g«pandhle from pandkle, nga- 
kona from kona. 



PREFIXES, 



253 



NA. 

313. Na is used, both as a prepositional and copulative 
particle, in the formation of the conjunctive form of nouns 
and pronouns, expressing and, also, even, in its latter cha- 
racter, and with in its former. As a copulative particle, na 
is likewise used before the other forms ; except the posses- 
sive and vocative, and such of the compound forms as com- 
mence with a possessive particle ; as well as before words 
in general, with the exception of verbs. 

1. In affirmative propositions, the former of two nas will 
sometimes express both. Thus : — 



Wampa rcokudhla wengubo ; 
Wahainba wasemroini rcasebusuku; 



He gave liim both, food and raiment. 
He travelled both, by day and by 
night. 



2. In negative propositions, na will sometimes have the 
force of a disjunctive particle. As : — 



XJngandipi ubuhlwempu rcobutyebi ; 
Ningabi rcamali zegolide wezesilivere j 



Give me neither poverty nor riches. 
Provide neither gold nor silver. 



314. Na is used as an adverbial particle in the formation 
of the demonstrative adverbs (§ 351), and in that of the 
adverb namhla. 

315. The preceding particles nga and na usually coalesce, 
like the possessive particles, with the initial vowel of nouns 
and pronouns. In some instances, however, the coalition 
does not take place, the initial vowel being elided instead. 
This usage obtains chiefly in negative propositions, especi- 
ally in the case of na, which rarely coalesces with a noun 
in immediate connexion with a negative form of the substan- 
tive verb. As : — 



Ndingercatyala larAo ; 
Enge/?anto ^okuhlaula ; 
Asidhlanga isonka sanintu ; 
Abafuni 'sibane rcasikanyiso selanga ; 

Bendingateti ngasonka ; 
Kungasayi kutshiwo ngamniw ; 
Kungewjakuba ndifune isiplwo ; 



Not having the guilt of the thing. 
Having nothing to pay. 
We have eaten no man's bread. 
They need no candle, neither light 

of the sun. 
I spake not concerning bread. 
It shall not be said of a man. 



Wot because I desire 



rift. 



254 AFFIXES. 

The same usage prevails before the nouns into, indawo, fyc, 
when followed by the interrogative nina ; as nganto nina, ^ancla- 
wo nina, ngatuba nina: also before numeral nouns and adjec- 
tives ; as ngasixenxe, ngamihmi, wamitatu, womnye, pezu hwam- 
nye : and occasionally in other instances. 

NGANGA. 

316. Nganga, a reduplicated form of nga, is used in the 
formation of the first comparative form of nouns and pro- 
nouns, according to §§ 117; 165, 5; 173; and 181. 

NJA. 

317. Nja, with the signification like, appears to be only 
found in the interrogative njanlna, in the adverbs njalo, ka- 
nja\o, ka??/#ko, and in the following particle njengz, where 
its final a is changed into e for the sake of euphony. 

NJENGA. 

318. Njenga, a derivative of nja and nga, is used in the 
formation of the second comparative form of nouns and pro- 
nouns, as well as in that of some of their compound forms, 
according to §§ 118; 123; 127; 131; &c. 

PA. 

319. Pa is prefixed to nouns, or parts of nouns, in the 
formation of prepositions and adverbs. In some cases, its 
final vowel coalesces with the initial one of the noun in the 
usual manner. As : — 

Pandhle, outside from incllde, the field. 

P# ntsi, beneath from izantsi, the lower part. 

Pezolo, last night from izolo, yesterday. 

Pezulu, above from izulu, heaven. 

AFFIXES. 

320. Ana, anyana, and azana, are used as diminutive 
affixes to nouns and adjectives, according to §§ 87 and 148. 

Ana sometimes changes its final a into e ; as umsinyane from 
umsinya, futshane homfupL 



EXPLETIVES. 25Z 

321. Kazi, a derivative of the root #£2, female, and the 
prefix ka s is used as a feminine affix to nouns, as noticed in 
§91. It is sometimes required, also, with adjectives, ac- 
cording to § 423. 

Kazi is likewise employed in the way of comparison ; as in 
kululcazi, very great, and kaJadukazi, very greatly ; also in 
the form of nouns noticed in § 89, 2. In some cases, it would 
appear to be used simply to vary the meaning of a word; as 
ubawokazi, uncle, from ubawo, father : or where comparison 
is only implied ; as innyamakazi, the generic name of those 
animals whose flesh is good for food, from innyama, flesh. 

322. Kweni is affixed to the inflected dative form of nouns 
which denote some period of time, with an adverbial force ; 
the initial vowel of such nouns being in most cases elided. 
As:— 

'X.emkweni, at the time when from ixa, time. 

EmHeni&toem, in the day when from umMa, day. 

Xeshenikwem, at the tune when from ixeslia, time. 

Xeslienikweni is more generally used in the contracted form of 
xesliehweni. 

323. Ndini is used in a pronominal sense, as an affix to 
the vocative form of nouns, according to § 132. 

324. She and tye are sometimes affixed to words, for the 
purpose of giving them a new application: as kadeshe, for 
ever, from hade, long ; ilangatye, flame, from ilanga, sun. 

325. Ya, there, is used in the formation of the demonstra- 
tive pronouns and adverbs, which denote the most distant 
objects. 

326. Yo is a particle used in connexion with the relative 
pronoun, which is affixed to certain tenses of the verb, ac- 
cording to § 180. See also § 241, 2. Its use is simply of 
a formal character. 

327. Ra is a particle of comparison. Its use is shown, 
with nouns in § 89, 1, and with adjectives in § 149. 

EXPLETIVES. 

328. The following particles, namely Ice, nje 9 bo, and he* 



25G INTERROGATIVES. 

liololiu, are used as mere expletives, corresponding in general 
force to some of the uses of then, now, and the like. 

1. Ke is affirmatory, consentive, precatory, and inferential. 

As:— 

Baya Ice nabo ; And they went also. 

Hamba ke ; Go then. 

Ke Kkosi ! Ah Sir ! 

Kulungile Ice ; It is good then. 

2. Nje is expostulatory, intensitive, and inferential. As : — 



Uyala na ukusebenza nje 1 
Yifune kaloku nje ; 
Kubonakala nje ; 



Do you refuse to work then ? 
Seek it at once now. 
It being manifest then. 



3. Bo, a derivative of yeho, yes, is requestive and con- 
firmatory. As : — 



Make haste now. 
Do let me alone then. 
I am in earnest now. 



Nxama bo ; 
Ndiyeke bo ; 
Ndinyanisile bo ; 

4. Kelialoku, a derivative of kaloku, now, and ke, appears 
to be employed, more for the purpose of giving, an oppor- 
tunity for thought, or of affording relief to the memory, than 
for adding any particular force to the meaning. Its use is 
most prevalent in the course of a narrative or an argument. 

INTEEEOOATIVES. 

329. The interrogates include those particles which are 
only used in an interrogative manner. They are as follow : — 

Na ... ... ... Simple interrogation ( § 366) 

Nina What? 

Nganina Wherefore ? 

Njanina ... ... ... Like what? How? 

Ninina When ? 

Sinina ... ... ... Whether of the two ? 

Yinina Why? 

Ubanina Who? 

Ngakananina How much ? 

Kangakananina Hoy/ much? 



INTERROGATIVES. 



157 



Pina and Ngapina 

Ngapma 

Kangapina 

Wupina, &c. 



Where? "Whither? 
How many ? 

How often ? 
"Which ? 



NINA. 

330. Nina is used both as a noun and as an adjective. 

1. As a noun, it belongs to the third species with the i 
prefix, and assumes most of the forms which are common to 
nouns in general. The prefix, however, is always omitted 
from the simple form, except when preceded by the sub- 
stantive verb, and is generally dropped, likewise, after pre- 
fixes terminating in a. In the inflected form, it is the root 
(ni) which suffers change, and not the interrogative na. 
Thus :— 

Simple form — Mna {for inina) What ? 

Possess. - — Wamna, or wenina Of what? 

Dative - — Kwinma and eninina To what ? In what ? 

Causal - — Tiiiina By what ? 

Instrum.- — Nganina or ngenina Through what ? 

Conj. - — JSTanina With what ? 

1 Comp. - — Nganganina As what ? 

2 Comp. - — jSTjenganuia Like what ? 

i. The simple form is often preceded by the nouns into 
and indawo, and sometimes, also, by the noun ituba. In 
the former case, ivhat is used in the sense of what thing ; 
and in the latter, in the sense of what reason. Thus : — ■ 



TTyafona 'nto nina ? 
Yinto nina uyifundayo ? 
Yindawo nina le ibalwayo ? 
Kuya kwaziwa ngaucTawo nina ; 
Lituba ni enizile ngalo ? 

Undenje nje ngatuba nina ? 



"What are you seeking ? 
What are you learning ? 
What is this that is written ? 
By what shall it be known ? 
What is the cause wherefore ye 

are come ? 
What is the reason you use me 

thus? 



ii. The possessive form is generally used in the sense of 
what sort. As : — 

i i 



258 INTERROGATIVES. 



Wenza isono sanina ? 
Umsebenzi un.goweni.na ? 



Wliat crime did lie commit ? 
What sort of work is it ? 



iii. When nina follows a verb in the Relative form, it is 
used in the sense oiwhat reason. As: — 



Waycnzela nina ? 
Wanibulalela nina ? 



For what reason did yon do it ? 
And wherefore' slew he him ? 



2. As an adjective, nina belongs to the first class, ex- 
pressing what, in the sense of ivhat sort. Thus : — 



ISozuza nmvuzo omnina ? 
In ondakela indhhi ennina ? 
Bcnza immiangaliso minina 1 
]S~iba nokubnlelwa okunina ? 



"What reward will ye obtain ? 
What house will ye build me ? 
What miracles did they work ? 
What thank hare ye ? 



When referring to a noun of the common gender, nina 
may denote what sort, in the sense of male or female. As : — 

Uyatanda ihashe elinina I What horse do you like — 

male or female ? 

NGANINA. 

331. Nganina is the instrumental form of nina, in its ad- 
verbial usage (§ 502), and is generally employed in asking 
the reason of things. As: — 



Nibe nindifuna nganina ? 

Weza nganina ? 

"Rwiganina ukuba wenje nje ? 



How is it that ye sought me ? 
Wherefore came he ? 
Why do- you act thus ? 



SININA. 



332. Simna is used at the end of an interrogative propo- 
sition, in which two inquiries of an opposite character are 
expressed or implied. It is preceded by the substantive 
verb, which is more generally used in the impersonal 
form, as in the following examples : — 



TTngozayo na, sikangele wumbi, ku- 

sinina ? 
Sinikele, singanikeh, "kasinihal 
Yazi kaloku ukuba yingubo yonya- 



Art thou he that should come, or 

do we look for another ? 
Shall we give, or shall we not give ?' 
Know now whether it be thy son's' 



na wako- kasinina ? coat or no ? 



INTERROGATE ES. 



259 



YININA. 

333. Yinina is the interrogative inina, with its euphonic 
letter prefixed after the substantive verb, and is generally 
used in the way of expostulation) more or less direct. As : — 

Yinlns. ukuba ubuze kumi ? Why askest tliou me ? 

N dingumalusi womninawe wami yi- Am I my brother's keeper 1 

n'ma 1 
Jbiyinina ukuba undenje nje uku- Why hast thou made me thus ? 

ndidala ? 



UBANINA. 



334. Ubanina is an interrogative noun of the first species, 
and follows all the analogies of nouns which are proper names, 
with the u form of the prefix. It is properly representative 
of persons, but is also used in reference to names, as in the 
following example : — 65 



Igama lake Vmgubanina ? 



What is his name 1 



NGAKANANINA and KANGAKANANINA. 

335. Ngahananina and Jcangakananina are derived respec- 
tively from the adjective ngakana, and the adverb kangaJcana , 
by affixing nina. The former, therefore, is an interrogative 
adjective of the third class, and the latter an interrogative 
adverb. They are used as in the following examples : — ■ 

Ixesha elingalcananina ? 
If gent o engakananina ? 
Kwoba ngakancmina umzalwana warn 



endone ? 
Kwoba kade kangakananina ndinani? 
Eufiiti kangaleananina ? 
Lakula ngamandhla Jcangakananina 

ilizwi lika-Tixo loyisa ; 



How long time ? 

By how much ? 

How oft shall my brother sin a- 

gainst me ? 
How long shall I be with you 1 
How often ? 

So mightily grew the word of God 
and prevailed. 



PINA. 



336. Pina is an interrogative adverb, usually signifying 
where or ichither. When used in connexion with nouns ac- 



65 The Hebrew personal interrog- j Compare Lee's Heb. Gram. § 178. 
ative pronoun {mi) has a similar usage. 



260 



INTERROGATIVES. 



cording to § 578, 2, it expresses what in the sense of"w7ience 
is it ?" the particular reference being to the source or origin 
of the thing spoken of. Thus : — 

Uzenza ngegunya lapina ezizinto ? By what authority doest thou these 

things ? 

Bubulumko bapina anikwa bona ? 1T71 ± • i • ,i • i • ■, - 

What wisdom is this which is given 

unto him ? 



NGAPINA and NJANINA. 

337. NgajAna (How many) and tijanina are interrogative 
adjectives, the former belonging to the first class, and the 
latter to the third. As : — 



Amahashe mangapina 1 

Ezomali zingapi ? 

Umntu onjanina 1 

Koto babizwa ngegama elivjani ; 



The horses are how many 1 

How much money is that ? 

What sort of a person ? 

By whatsoever name they are called. 



WUPINA, <$'C. 

338. Wupina, &c, are interrogative pronouns, varying 
in form according to the species and number of the noun to 
which they refer. They are severally derived by prefixing 
the proper euphonic letters to pina. Thus : — ■ 



wupma 
lipina 
yipina 
sipina 

lupina 
w up ina 



bupina 
kupiiia 



bapina 

wapina 

zipina 

zipina 

zipina 

yipina 



The above particles express ivhich, and sometimes who 
and what. Like all other pronouns, they take their euphonic 
letters after the substantive verb, and assume different forms. 
In the formation of the dative, kwi is used for Jcu before 
the second, third, and fourth species, singular; and third, 
fourth, fifth, and sixth species, plural. The following exam- 
ples will be a sufficient illustration of their use ; — 



ADVERBS. 



261 



Yiylpina into elungileyo endiya kuye- 

nza? 
Lulupina olufimdiso lutslia ? 
Nifuna ukuba manclinikululele wu- 

pina kwababini ? 
Woba ngumfazi wawupina ? 
Okunikani bomlilaba bamkela kuba~ 

pina imali zemiuikelo ? 
Utanda ukuba siye silungisele kwi- 

yipina indawo ukuze udhleipasi- 

ka? 
Ngawupina umteto ? 



What good thing shall I do? lit. 
It is what good thing that &c. 

What new doctrine is this ? 

Which of the two will ye that I re- 
lease unto you ? 

Whose wife shall she be ? 

Of whom do the kings of the earth 
take custom ? 

Where wilt thou that we go and 
prepare that thou mayest eat the 
passover ? 

By what law ? 



Those pronouns which include such of the euphonic letters as 
consist of a vowel and a superadded corresponding consonant ( § 
54), sometimes omit the latter. As : — 



Kungennxa j&ipina yayo enindigi- 

biselayo 1 
Ipina into ? 



For which of them do ye stone 



Which thing. 

339. Ninina; ngapina (whither), the intensitive form of 
pina ( § 312); and kangapina, a derivative of ngapina (how 
many) and lea ( § 306) ; are interrogative adverbs. Neither 
of these, however, requires any particular illustration. 

"N. B. The several interrogatives are often used with their final 
na elided : as, ni, nini, tchani, yini, sini, jpi, nycipi, tvupi, Sfc. 

ADVERBS. 

340. The following list contains the adverbs which are in 



most general use : — 




Apa 


Here 


Apo 


There, where 


Edwa and Odwa ... 


Only, alone 


Ekohlo and Ngasekohlo § 503 . . 


To the left 


Ekuhleni § 556 


Openly, manifestly 


Ekunene, ISTgasekunene § 508, 3.. 


To the right 


Ekutile (§ 508, 3) and Ekutini ") 
(§ 542, *. e.) ) 


To such a place 


Endhle an d JNgasendhle § 503 ... 


Outside -in the field 


Ewe 


Yes 


Euti 


Often 



262 



ADVERBS. 



Gxami 
Gxebe 
Hai 

Kade 

Kadeshe ... 
Kakade ... 
Kakulu ... 
Kaloku ... 

Kambe 

Kamsinya and Kamsinyane 

Kanene ... 

Kangaka ... 

Kangako ... 

Kanjako ... 

Kanjalo ... 

Kanye 

Kona and Ngakona (§ 312) 

Kudala § 508, 2 

Kude § 508, 2 

Kufupi § 508, 2 

Kuhle § 508, 2 

Kunene § 508, 2... 

Kunye § 508, 2 

Kupela§572 

Kusasa § 572 

Kuseloko and Kusoko ... 

Kuqala § 525 

Kwa 

Mayela ... 

Nakanye {from na and kanye) . 

Camilla ... 

Napakade 

Ndawonye 

jNTgaboini ... 

Ngakumbi 

Ngapa and Ngapo 

Ngokuhlwa § 502 

Ngomso § 502 ... 



. Aside 

Certainly, by tKe by, &c. 
. No 

. Long ago 
. For ever 

. Long ago : Certainly 
. Greatly 
. Now 

Of course 
. Soon 
. Truly, well 
. So -as this 
. So -as that 
. Again 
. Also, again 
. "Wholly, altogether 

There, thither 

Of olden time 
. Afar off 
. Near 
. Softly 
. Truly 
. Together -all at once 

But, only, besides 
. Early -in the morning 

Since, after that 

First -in order 
. Even, also 
. Thereabouts 
.. Even once, at all 
. To-day 
. Ever 

, . Together -in one place 
. "Wilfully, purposely 

Otherwise 
,. This way, that way 
.. This evening 
, , To-morrow ; This morning 



ADVERBS. 



263 



Xa § 504 
Nqanje 



ISTgomva § 502 

Nyakennye 

Njalo 

Nje 

Nxa arte 

Nqangi 

Nqwa 

Okanye ... 

Oku 

Okuya and Oko ... 
Paya {for apa-ya) 
Pezolo 

Tanci§504 

IJmhlaumbi and Imhlaimbi 
Xamnye and Nxamnye . . . 
Xeshekweni, &c. § 322... 
Boda 



Backwards 

Last year 

So -in that way 

So -in this way 

When 

First -in time 

Just, exactly 

Once more 

Now 

Then, when 

Yonder 

Last night 

First -in time 

Perhaps 

Aside, away 

When 

Adieu 



341. Many of the preceding adverbs are only such in a 
syntactical point of view. Etymologically, they are nouns, 
pronouns, adjectives, or verbs, as will be seen from the dif- 
ferent sections referred to above, or from some of those 
which immediately follow. The same observation, also, is 
equally applicable to the prepositions and conjunctions. 

342. Edwa and Odwa vary in form, according to the per- 
son, species, and number of the noun or pronoun to which 
they refer, as follows (§§ 54, 3, vii ; 55, 3 ; and 56, 5) : — 



PEES. 


SPEC. 


I 




II 




III 


1 




2 




3 


... 


4 


i... 


5 


... 


6 


... 


7 


... 


. 8 



SING. 

Ncledwa or Ndodwa . . , 

Wedwa . . . 

Tedwa 

Lodwa 

Yodwa 

Sodwa 

Lodwa 

Wodwa . . . 

Bodwa 
Kodwa 



PLTTE. 

Sodwa or Sedwa 

Nodwa or ISTedwa 

Bodwa 

Edwa or Odwa (§ 54) 

Zodwa 

Zodwa 

Zodwa 

Yodwa 



343. Kona is the indefinite form of the personal pronoun? 
used instead of the place referred to, and thus becoming 



264 ADVERBS. 

equivalent to there. Hence it sometimes precedes apo, on 
the principle involved in § 512, for the sake of greater em- 
phasis. As : — 

Akenza mininzi irnisebenzi ya- He did not many mighty works 

mandhla kona apo ; there. 

344-. Kuseloko is derived by prefixing the perfect tense of 
sala, in its Idiomatic usage, to oko. Kusoko is a contrac- 
ted form. Before nouns and pronouns it is sometimes used 
as a preposition, in which case, the form okwa (§161) is 
substituted for oko, its final vowel coalescing with the ini- 
tial one of the succeeding noun, as also with that of the 
succeeding pronoun, if it commences with a vowel. Thus : — 



Kaselo k weniihla ; 
Kuselokwohiq&leka kwornhlaba ; 
Kuselokwa lanimini ; 



Ever since the days. 

Prom the beginning of the world. 

From that day forth. 



345. Napakade, when preceded by the substantive verb, 
is treated as a noun of the first species with the u form of 
the prefix, as in the phrase, Jcude kube ngunapakade, for 
ever and ever. 

346. Ndawonye is a contracted form of indaivo mnye, one 
place, and is used adverbially to express together, in the 
sense of " in the same place with" 

347. Nyakennye is a contraction of the noun innyakz, 
year, in coalition with the indefinite adjective ennye, one, 
and is used adverbially to denote the year preceding the 
current one. 

348. Oku is the indefinite form of the demonstrative pro- 
noun this, used in the sense of this time. Kaloku is deri- 
ved from oku, by prefixing ka, and inserting the epenthetic 
letter I. Okay a and oko, again, are the indefinite forms of 
the demonstrative pronoun that, used in the sense of that 
time, and w T ill express, therefore, then, or when, according 
to the construction. 

Some of the principal forms of the preceding demonstrative pro- 
nouns are likewise used adverbially : as ngoku, at this time : noko, 
and when ; kokuya, to when ; njengoko, as when. 



DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERBS. 



265 



349. Umhlaumbi is a conventional usage of umlila umb'i, 
another day. Imhlaimbi is a contracted form of the plural, 
— imiJila imbi, other days, — and is also used in the same 
way. 

DEMONSTRATIVE ADTEEB3. 

3.50. The demonstrative adverbs vary in form, according 
to the species and number of the noun referred to, as in the 
following tables : — 



srsa. 

Nanku 

Xali 
]N antsi 
Nasi 
Nalu 

jSanmi 



aS~abu 
Nanku 



PLUE. 

Naba 

j^anga 

Nanzi 

JSazi 

Nanzi 

Nantsi 



SPEC. 
1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 



Nankuya or Xanko 
Xaliya or Nalo 

Xantsiya or Xantso 
Xasiya or Xaso 
Naluya or Nalo 

Xano-uva or -S"ano;o 



plus. 

Nabaya or Xabo 
Xangaya or Xango 
Xanziya or Xanzo 
Naziya or Xazo 
Nanziya or Nanzo 
Kantsiva or Xantso 



lN~abuya or Xabo 
Nankuya or xsanko 



351. The above forms are used in the sense of "Here he 
is," §-c, and " There he is, " §c, with their plurals. 

1. The former appear to be derived, by prefixing na to the 
several euphonic letters, or to then 1 substitutes. 

L But nku is used for ngu, first species, singular. 

ii. 17, third species, singular, and sixth species, plural, is changed into tsi, 
which takes the epenthetic letter n before it. 

iii. The epenthetic n is likewise inserted before the euphonic letters of the third 
and fifth species, plural, and also before those of the eighth species. 

2. The latter are derived from the former, by affixing yq ; and 
of these, the forms which terminate in o are contractions. 

3. The epenthetic letter m is sometimes inserted before the eu- 

K K 



266 NUMERAL ADVERBS. 

phonic letters of the first species, plural, as namha, namhaya, 
nambo. 

4. The euphonic letters of the second species, singular, are some- 
times changed into tl, in which case the epenthetic n is inserted ; 
as nanti, nantiya, nanto. 

852. Nantsi, third species, singular, is employed in the 
colloquial style, to represent the name of a person or tiling 
which happens to be unknown or forgotten at the time by 
the speaker. If the reference be to a person, nantsi takes 
the prefix u, first species ; as u-Nantsi, Such a one ; but if 
to a thing, the prefix i, third species, is used ; as inantsi, 
such a thing. 

353. Nanku, of the eighth or indefinite species, is em- 
ployed with both numbers of the first person, when requir- 
ed. As : — 

Nanku ndilapa j Here I am. 

Nanku silapa ; Here we are. 

NUMERAL ADYERBS. 

354. The numeral adverbs are as follow ( § 306 ) : — 



Kanye 


Once 


Kabini 


Twice 


Katatu 


Thrice 


Kane 


Four times 


Kahlanu 


Five times 


Katandatu ... 


Six times 


Kasixenxe ... 


Seven times- 


Kamhoxo 


Eight times 


Kasibozo 


Eight times 


Kalitoha 


Nine times 


KaHshumi ... 


Ten times 


Kamashumi ... 


Tens of times 


Kalikulu 


Hundred times 


Kamakulu ... 


Hundreds of times 


Kaliwaka 


Thousand times 


Kamawaka ... 


Thousands of times 



355, The intermediate numeral adverbs between the tens, 



PREPOSITIONS. 



2G7 



hundreds, and thousands, are supplied by the help of the 



numeral adjectives and nouns 

Kalishumi elinesihlanu ; 
Kaniashunh niabini ; 
Kalikulu ehnamashumi niahlanu ; 
Kaniakidu rnatatu ananiashmni mane; 
Ivaliwaka elinainakulu inatandatu 

anamaskinni asibozo ; 
Kamawaka alikulu elinaniauci mar 

hlanu ; 



Thus : — 

Fifteen times. 

Twenty times. 

Hundred and fifty times. 

Three hundred and forty times. 

A thousand, six hundred, and eighty 

times. 
A hundred and fifty thousand times. 



PEEPOSITIOXS. 
356. The following are the principal prepositions : — 



Ele and Ngasele ... 


. Beyond 


Emva and Ngasemva 


. Behind 


Emveni and Emvenikweni, &e. .. 


. After 


Enkla tm<? NgasenMa ... 


. Above -farther on 


Ese and Ngasese ... 


. Beyond -out of sight 


Ezantsi and Ngasezantsi 


Below 


Kamva 


After-in time 


Mahmgana and Malunga 


Opposite to 


Kganeno ... 


On this side of 


jSgennxa ... 


On account of 


Pakati and Ngapakati ... 


. . Within, between, among 


Pambi and Ngapambi ... 


. Before 


Pantsi and Ngapantsi 


Beneath 


Pandlile and Ngapandhle 


.. Without, outside, besides 


Pesheya and Xgapesheya 


.. Across, on the other side of 


Pezu and Ngapezu 


On, upon, over 


Pezulu and Ngapezulu ... 


Above -higher 



1. Emva and Emveni are two different dative forms of 
the noun umva, the back part of an object, emvahemg used 
in reference to space, and emveni in reference to time. Hence 
emvenikweni from the latter according to § 322. 

2. Enkla is the dative form of inlda, the high part of an 
object, as ezantsi is of izantsi, the low part of an object. 

3. Kamva is another derivative of umva, according to 
§ 306. 



268 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



4. Malungana and malunga are the roots of verbs used 
prepositionally. 

5. Ngennxa is the instrumental form of innxa, a part. 

6. For the prepositions commencing with the prefixes pa 
and nga, see §§ 319, 312, and 53, 1. 

357. The several prepositions are also used as adverbs. 
When ele is so employed, its initial vowel is dropped, as in 
the following example : — 



Ncliya kukutuma le ebaheyideni j 



I will send thee far hence to the 
Gentiles. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



358. The conjunctions are as 

Hlazi and Hlazibe 

Illcze, Hlezi, and Illezibe 

Ingabi§537 

Ize §566, 2, iii 

Kanti 

Koko and Kuloko 

Kodwa 

Kukona ... 

Nakuba and Nakubeni ... 

Nangona ... 

Ngako and Ngoko 

Noko 

Njengoko... 

Njengokungati and Ngokungati \ 
§542 J 

Okokuba ... 

Pofii 

Ukuba 

Ukuze 



follow : — 

Lest 

Lest 

Lest 

That then, and then 

"Whereas, and yet 

But 

However 

Consequently, then 

Although 

Although 

Therefore 

Yet, nevertheless 

As 

As if, as though 

That, how that 
But then, how then 
If, since, that, because 
In order that 



1. Hlazi, hlazibe, hleze, §c 9 are different combinations 
of the verbal roots Ma, za, and ba } and are used, accor- 
dingly, in reference to such events as are likely to occur, 
unless the means for their prevention are adopted. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 269 

2. Kodwa is the indefinite form of the adverb odwa used 
disjunctively or adversatively. 

3. Kuloko is the demonstrative pronoun oko used adver- 
satively, with the substantive verb prefixed. Koko is the 
same in a contracted form. 

4. Kulcona is the adverb bona used inferentially, with the 
substantive verb prefixed. It is used to point out the con- 
sequence of some circumstance referred to, as in the following 
examples : — 



Kulcona usapo lukululekile j 
Kukona beziya kugcineka izizwe j 



Then (for that reason) are the chil- 
dren free. 

Then (in that case) would the 
nations be preserved. 



5. Nahiba is another form for nokuba, when used ad- 
versatively. Nakubeni is a contraction for nasekuheni ; and 
is an intensitive form of ekubeni, with the literal significa- 
tion, even in that. 

6. Nangona is for nakona, even it, used adversatively, k 
being changed into ng for the sake of euphony. 

7. Ngako is the instrumental form of the personal pronoun 
kona, used inferentially, and is often followed by the demon- 
strative pronoun, in accordance with § 512, for the fuller 
expression of the meaning. 

8. Ngoko, noko, and njengoko, are different forms of the 
demonstrative pronoun oko, the first being used inferentially, 
the second adversatively, and the third comparatively. 

9. Ukuba is the infinitive mood of the substantive verb in 
its nominal usage. Okokuba is a derivative of this, and the 
demonstrative pronoun oko, and literally signifies, therefore, 
" that, that. " 

The several forms of nkiiba and okokuba are also used conjunc- 
tionally, either copulati^ely, conditionally, causally, adversatively, 
or comparatively. These are as follow : — 

Ukuba and Okokuba ... ... That 

Wokub&and JFokokuba... ... Of that 

Eknbeni, JNT^asekubeni, and 7 m ^ j. • ui l 
KwokokuW Kokokuba } To that, m that 



270 



INTERJECTIONS. 



Kukuba and Kokokuba ... ... By that 

Ngokuba and Ngokokuba . . . Through that, because, for 

JNFokuba and Nokokuba ... ... And that, whether, though 

Ngangokuba and Ngangokokuba So as that 

Kjengokuba and INjengokokuba According as that 

10. Ukuze is the infinitive mood of the verb za, in its 
idiomatic usage, with the final vowel changed into e» 

INTEKJECTIONS. 

359. The following are the principal interjections: — 



A! 

Au! 
He! 
Hi! 
Hei! 

Hiku! ... 

Ho! 

Hoi! 

JNTci! 

Nxatshi ke ! 

Tshipo! ... 

¥a! 

Wenna ! ... 

Yo! 

X! 



Hail ! 

Alas! Oh! 

So ! denoting assent. 

Exclamation of surprise, &c. 

Used in calling to any one. 

Hunting exclamation. 

Denotes indignation, &c. 

Denotes regret, pity, &c. 

Dear me ! 

Exactly so ! Just so ! Good ! 

Used in reference to the cold. 

Used to invite attention. 

Still! 

Denotes surprise, &c. 

Denotes contempt. 

Woe! 



Qa! 

1. Wa is a contraction of the pronoun wena, which is often 
used in a similar manner, especially in calling aloud to a 
person. 

2. Mawo, and Baivo, the vocative forms of umaivo, my 
mother, and ubawo, my father, are frequently employed in- 
ter) ectionally, more particularly the former, in the sense of 
Wonderful / Strange ! and the like. 

3. The use of O as an interjection is an Anglicism, but it 
is frequently used in addresses to the Deity. 



OF PROPOSITIONS. 271 

PAPvT III. 

THE CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 



360. In the preceding parts, words have been chiefly con- 
sidered in reference to their elements and individual pro- 
perties. It remains, therefore, to treat of them in their 
collective usages, when united together for the enunciation 
of a complete proposition. 

It may be premised, that the Construction of words refers to their gram- 
matical agreement, including both concord and regimen ; and the Arrangement of 
words, to their relative position with others in the same sentence. 

OP PKOPOSITIONS. 

861. Propositions are either simple or compound, incom- 
plex or complex, according to the character of their principal 
parts. (§ 387) 

362. In another view propositions are either absolute or 
relative. 

1. Absolute propositions are those which express in them- 
selves a complete sense ; and are divided into affirmative, 
negative, imperative, interrogative, optative, 8fc. 

2, Relative propositions are those which only form a com- 
plete sense in union with one or more others ; and are 
divided into hypothetical, conditional, interjectional, cop- 
ulative, adversative, $c. 

363. Aformal definition of each of these several propositions 
will not be necessary, as they are common to all languages, 
and, in general, are sufficiently characterized by the nature 
of the words employed in their construction. A few re- 
marks, however, must be offered in connexion with some of 
them, in order to elucidate what is peculiar to the Kafir 
language. 

NEGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 

364<. The negative is expressed in the verb, which has 
distinct tensual forms for that purpose. This will account 
for the almost entire absence of negative particles, as well 
as throw light upon such constructions as the following : — 



212 



NEGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 



Akuko namnye oqondayo ; 

Kungabi kuleyo iyeyornteto yodwa j 

Kungckoko kodwa ; 

Kungabi ngeinilonio yetu yodwa j 

Ingeko imisebenzi ; 

Singabi nasono ; 
Akananto ; 



There is none that understandeth : lit- 
erally, There is-not even one &c. 

Not to that only which is of the law : 
literally, Not-being to that &c. 

Hot only so : lit., Not-being that only. 

Not only with our lips : literally, Let 
it vot-be with &c. 

Without works : literally, "Works not- 
being present. 

Without sin : lit., Not-being with sin. 

He has nothing : lit., He is-not with 
anything. 

1. The particle na sometimes appears to express a nega- 
tive, especially when used in reply to a question, as in the 
following instance : — 



JBebenetuba lanina lokumbulala ? 



Nalinye 



What reason had they for killing 

him? 
None. 



But in this and similar cases, the answer is really an el- 
liptical one, a negative verb being necessary to the full 
expression of the meaning. As this, however, is readily 
supplied from the question, its omission creates no difficul- 
ty. In the preceding example, accordingly, the complete 
answer would be — 

BebengenaYmye ; They were-not with one. 

2. The preceding observations also apply to the adverbs 
nakanye and napakade, both of which appear to express 
never in the same circumstances. 

1ST. B. The negative is sometimes used to denote a very strong 
affirmative. See, for examples, §§ 373 — -374. 

S65. The verb musa, which is probably the causative stem 
form of mulca, to go away, is used imperatively in the sense 
of " you must not, " as in the following examples : — 



Musa ukwenje njalo ; 

Musani kuteta ; 

Musa, Monindini, ukulalela ikaya 

lolungisayo ; 
Andikutyelanga na ukuba 

kutya kuyo ? 



You must not do so. 

Ye must not speak. 

Lay not wait, O wicked man, against 

the dwelling of the righteous. 
Did I not tell you that you must 
not eat of it. 



INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 273 



INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 

366. Interrogation is formally expressed by the particle ?ia, 
either simply, or in combination. Thus : — 

Did he continue always in it ? 



Wahlala futi na kuso ? 
Akenzanga na izono ezikulu 1 
Babe ngaboni bonke na 1 
Wabonakala kubani/m ? 
Woza nini«a? 
Waya ngapina? 



Did be not commit great sins ? 
Were they all sinners ? 
To whom did he appear ? 
When will he come ? 
Whither did he go ? 

Na is also used where interrogation is only implied. As : — - 



Ukuba baziqonde, nokuba baguqu- 
kile na ngennyaniso ; 

Belungazi ukuba yinto nina ; 
Befuna ukwazi ukuba ezizinto zi- 

njalo kusiniwa ; 
Aze abone ukuba kwopela pina ; 



That they should examine them- 
selves whether they have truly re- 
pented. 

They knew not what it was. 

Seeking to know whether these 
things are so. 

To see how it would end. 



OPTATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 

367. The verb nga usually expresses the ordinary act of 
wishing^ in connexion with a following verb in the Potential 
mood ; the two verbs together thus supplying a sort of 
Optative mood. Thus : — 

I wish to love. 

I would that ye knew. 

He wishes they may have gone. 

We would know what these things 

mean. 
We wish you could have done so 

then. 

1. In this construction, the several tenses of the verb in 
the Potential mood are also used in their contracted forms. 
As:— 



Ndmga ndingatanda ; 

Ndinga ningazi ; 

Unga banga bemkile ; 

Si?iga singazi ukuba zezokuti nina 

ezizinto ; 
Shiga unge ube wenje njalo oko ; 



"NAmgiingateta ; I wish to speak. 

TJngatigahamba ; He wishes to go. 

Ndonga nganditetlle ; I shall wish to have spoken. 

% When the verb nga, to wish, is used in the aorist, 

L L 



274 



OPTATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 



Subjunctive, the auxiliary nga is altogether omitted, as in 
the following example : — 

Ndakungateta ; | When I wish to speak. 

868, Nga is also used to express a wish in a precatory 
manner, corresponding in general force to May, Pray, and 
the like, in the phrases — " May you be happy ! " — "I pray 
thee!" §c. The aorist, Indicative, is usually employed in 
this construction, though other forms of the verb will be 
sometimes required, according to §§ 380 — 384. Nga, 
moreover, is used in the same person as the following verb, 
and thus, in effect, passing on the act of wishing to the 
subject of this. As : — - 



Wanga u-Tixo angakupata ngofefe, 

nyana wami ! 
Yanga in-Kosi ingaiiandisa ; 
K wanga kimgebe njalo ! 
Ivochva kaloku wanga ungabaxolela i- 

sono sabo ; 
TJfefe lwen-Kosi yetu, luka-Yesu 

Kristu, Iwanga lungako kuni ; 
Wanga, Nkosi, ungatuma ngesandhla 

salowo umtumayo ; 
Aze u-Tixo onamandla onke angc anga- 

ninika ukupatwa ngofefe ebusweni 

bendoda ! 

369. An urgent wish, corresponding in force to the 
phrases, — " Oh that!" — " Would that!" and the like, is ex- 
pressed by the help of the substantive verb. This is used in 
the aorist, Indicative, negative form, and generally implies a 
degree of regret that the thing desired had not been obtain- 
ed, or that the event alluded to had not taken place. 
Thus:— 



God be gracious unto thee, my son ! 

And the Lord make you to increase. 

Let it not be so! 

Yet now, if thou wilt forgive their sin. 

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be 

with you. 
O Lord, send, I pray thee, by the 

hand of him whom thou wilt send. 
And may God Almighty give you mer« 

cy before the man ! 



Andaba ndahlala kona ndiugasu- 

kanga ! 
Andahi (§ 234, 1) bendinaso isi- 

kundhla sokulala ! 
Azaba inkosi zomhlaba zanoku- 

tekeleza ! 



Would that I had remained 

there, and not departed ! 
Oh that I had a lodging place ! 

Would that the chiefs of the earth 
were agreed ! 



HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. 



275 



The substantive verb is sometimes used in the imperso- 
nal form in this construction. As : — 

Akwaba safela ezweni le-Jipete sisa- Would that we had died by the hand 



ndhla sika-Yehova! 
Akwaba abantu bonke bebeya kum- 
konza u-Tixo ! 



of the Lord in the land of Egypt ! 
Oh that all men would serve God! 



HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. 



370. The substantive verb is generally used to express 
simple hypothesis. As : — 



Ho I Bendiba navela ninayo ; 
Ningabi ndize kububisa umteto ; 
Banirola esitadeni, beba ufile ; 
Ngezinto endibe ndiba bomangala nga- 



Indeed! I thought you were born 
with them. 

Think not that I am come to destroy 
the law. 

They drew him out of the city, sup- 
posing he had been dead. 

Of such things as I supposed they 
would complain about. 

We thought it good to be left at' 
Athens alone. 



Saba kungalunga ukuba sishiywe e 
Atenesi sedwa ; 

371. The verb ti is sometimes used in a similar manner. 

As:— 

What think ye ? 



Niti nina nina ? 
Singe singati ubu-Tixo bunje- 
ngegolide ; 



We ought not to think that the 
G-odhead is like unto gold. 



372. To express hypothetic semblance, the verb nga, to 
seem, is generally used. As : — 



Ngokuba kumi kunga akufanelekile ; 
Wada wanga udanile ; 
Unga uyamkonza u-Tixo ; 
Ngokuba ubuso bake bebunga uyaya 

e-Yerusaleme ; 
Kuze kunge besafuna ; 
Ukuze ange uyaswcla into ; 
Zilani nokxiuokur,ga kukohlakele ; 

Isandi sanga sesomoya oqutcla nga- 

mandhla ; 
Wahlala ezweni ledinga, Unga lilizwc 

lascmzini j 



For it seemeth to me unreasonable. 
At length he seemed confounded. 
He seems to be religious. 
Because his face was as though he 

woidd go to Jerusalem. 
As though they were still seeking. 
As though he needed any thing. 
Abstain from the very appearance of 

evil. 
A sound as of a mighty rushing wind. 

He sojourned in the land of promise 
as in a strange country. 



276 INTERJECTIONAL PROPOSITIONS. 



Inani lamadoda laye linga lhnawaka 
mahlanu : 



The number of the men was about fire 

thousand. 



For other modes of expressing this kind of hypothesis, see 
§§537 and 543. 



INTERACTIONAL PROPOSITIONS. 

373. The negative particle hai is used with a strong af- 
firmative force in the way of exclamation. Thus : — 

Hai, wena mfazi ! ukololwako lukulu ; O woman ! great is thy faith. 



Hai, ubunzima benu inna nihlutiyo! 
Hai, umkiwane ukwoma kamsinya ! 
Hai, umntu enelishwa mna ! 



Woe mito you that are full ! 

How soon is the fig tree withered away ! 

What an unfortunate man am I! 



374. The negative verbial asi is sometimes used in a 



similar manner. As : — 

Asi nokuba zinkle innyawo zabo ba- 

shumayela uxolo ! 
Asi kuko nokuncinezelwa kwami kude 

kwenziwe ! 



How beautiful are the feet of them 
that publish peace ! 

How am I straitened till it be ac- 
complished ! 



375. The infinitive mood of the substantive verb, in the 
construction noticed § 536, is sometimes used with an inter- 
jectional force. Thus : — 



Ukuba baninzi ke kwabaqashwa 
bakabawo abakutya kwaneleyo- ! 
Ukuba 'ukle kwayo ! 
Ukuba kude ke ! 



How many hired servants of my 
father's haTe bread enough-! 
How pretty it is ! 
What a distance ! 



376. Interjectional phrases are also formed by the assis- 
tance of the interrogative njanina, and in other ways, as in 
the following examples: — 



Kuko isizukulwana, anjanina a- 

mehlo aso ukuzidhla ! 
Musa ! ukwenza kade kwako ! 
Ukugeza kwake ! 
Au, umntu olusizi endinguye ! 



There is a generation, O how lof- 
ty are their eyes ! 
How long you are doing it ! 
What a desperate fellow ! 
O wretched man that I am ! 



377. An exclamation by way of oath or affirmation, is 
expressed by the vocative form in the case of nouns, and 
by the participle in case of verbs. Thus : — 



COPULATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 



277 



Okanye, bomi bo-Faro, nizinklo- 

la; 
Ndihldi nje, utslio u-Yekova ; 



Or else, by the life of Pharoah, 

ye are spies. 
As I live, saith the Lord. 



COPULATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 



378. The copulative particle na is used for the purpose 
of connecting nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and particles 
together, according to § 313. Thus: — 



Indoda ?zomfazi wayo ; 
Ezulwini ?e«semhlabeni ; 
Ngomlilo -?wngamanzi ; 
Amanzi amnandi /?arara; 
"Wateta kumi wakubo ; 
Esama-Yodi rcesarna-Girike 

Apa wapaya; 

Pakati /wngapandhle ; 



A man and bis wife. 

In heaven and on earth. 

By fire and by water. 

Sweet water and bitter. 

He spoke to me and to them. 

That of the Jews and that of the 

Greeks. 
Here and there. 
"Within and without. 



379. Verbs are united together, by placing the latter in 
some particular form, according to that of the antecedent 
one. The following sections exhibit the principal usages 
adopted in this method of construction. 

380. The Imperative mood is followed by the present, 
Subjunctive. As : — 



Gcina imiteto yami, upile; 

Lindani nitandaze ; 

Nditi kwelinye, Yiya, liye ke ; 



Keep my commandments, and live. 

Watcb and pray. 

And I say unto one, Go, and he 

goetb. 



But if the latter verb expresses that which is future and 
conditional, it is sometimes used in the augmented form of 
the first future, Indicative. As : — 



Celani, nanhja kupiwa ; 
Funani, nanhja kufumana ; 
Melani u-Satani waeya kunibaleka 



Ask, and it sball be given you. 
Seek, and ye shall find. 
Resist the devil and he will flee 
from you. 



381. Two or more verbs in the infinitive mood can be 
joined together by the copulative na ; or the latter may be 
used in the present, Subjunctive. Thus; — 



278 



COPULATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 



Umsebenzi wawo kukuzinga abantu, 
nokubarolela kuleyo indawo yawo ; 

Ufanele ukunikelwa ezandlileni zaba- 
ntu aJcuruseshwe ; 



Their employment is to tempt men, 
and to draw thern to their own place. 

He must be delivered into the hands 
of men, and be crucified. 



382. The participles follow each other without any for- 
mal si<m of connexion. Thus : — 



Weza esitya esela nokusela ; 
Besiva bebona imimangaliso waye- 
nzayo; 



He came eating and drinking. 
Hearing and seeing the miracles which 
he did. 



383. The present and future tenses of each mood, gene- 
rally require the following verb in the present, Subjunctive. 
Thus :— 



Abalungisayo bayavuma bavuye ; 
Sizazi ukuba uxela ufundise ngento 

elungileyo ; 
Intombi iya kumita, izale unyana ; 

Ngayo leyo imihla abantu bofuna 

ukufa, bangakufumani ; 
INgubanina obengayi kwoyika wena, 

adumise igama lako 1 
Ndingayicita itempile ka-Tixo, ndi- 

buije ndiyake ngentsuku zibe nta- 

tu; 
Ange engalusi intsapo zawo, anga- 

hambi ngamasiko kanjalo ; 

Ndize ndimbcdeshe, ndimbulele i ndi- 
tembe yena yedwa ; 



The righteous sing and rejoice. 
"We know that thou sayest and 

teachest rightly. 
A virgin shall be with child, and 

shall bring forth a son. 
In those days shall men seek death, 

and shall not find it. 
Who would not fear thee, and praise 

thy name ? 
I am able to destroy the temple of 

God, and to build it in three 

days. 
They ought not to circumcise their 

children, neither to walk after 

the customs. 
That I should worship him, and give 

him thanks, and trust in him only. 



But the latter verb may be used in other forms, in con- 
nexion with the above tenses, according to the following 
rules: — 

1. The present, Indicative, is sometimes followed by its 
corresponding participle, or by its augmented form, or by 
the aorist, Indicative. As : — 



Kangcla, wena ubizwa ngobu-Yocli, — 
usaai intando yake, — wauzilembela ; 



Behold thou art called a Jew, — and 
knowest his will, — and art confi- 
dent. 



COPULATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 



279 



Xeshekweni usa unmikelo wako elata- If thou bring thy gift to tlie altar, and 

reni, wakttmbula apo — ; there rememberest — . 

Osukuba esiza kumi, weva iziteto zanii, Whosoever conieth to me, and heareth 

wazenza ; rny sayings, and doetli them. 

When the latter verb expresses that which is future, it is 
used in the augmented form of the first future, Indicative. 
As:— 



God controls their power, and will 
save all who put their trust in him. 



U-Tixo uyeyisa amandhla azo, waeya 
laisindisa bonke abamtembayo ; 

2. The first future, Indicative, is often followed by its 
augmented form, and sometimes by the aorist, Indicative. 

As:— 



Ndosuka ndiye kubawo, ndandiya 

Jcuti kuye ; 
Liya kuncoliswa ilanga lalingasayi 

Jcukanya ; 
Nokuba iya kuza — , yazifumana 

zinjalo ; 



I will arise and go to my father, and 

will say unto him. 
The sun shall be darkened, and 

shall no more give light. 
And if he shall come — , and find 

them so. 



3. The second form of the present, Potential, is frequent- 
ly followed by the aorist, Indicative. As : — 



Ngekutengwa ngawo imali, zapiwa 

amahlwempu ; 
Singe sifunda nati, saxelisa kwa 

nina : 



There might be bought with it 
money, and given to the poor. 

We ought also to learn, and follow 
your example. 



4. The present, Subjunctive, in its imperative usage, re- 
quires the latter verb in the augmented form of the first 
future, Indicative, if it expresses that which is future and 
conditional. As : — 



Uze utete kodvva libe lilizwi, sasiya 
huti isicaka sami sipiliswe ; 



But speak the word only, and my 
servant shall be healed. 



Occasionally, also, it is followed by the aorist, Indicative, 
As:— 



If thou wilt hearken-, and wilt do 
that which is right-, and wilt give 
ear to his commandments. 



Xeshekweni uya kulipulapula-, wenze 
ngokulungileyo— , wapulapula nemi- 
yalelo yake ; 

384. The past tenses of each mood, are usually followed 
by the aorist, Indicative. As : — 



280 



COPULATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 



Wapakamisa amehlo ake, wabona 

indawo ikude ; 
Owokuqala uye wagalela ifiyali yake 

pezu kwomhlaba ; 
Bendisifa, naza kundikuza ke ; 
Obesitandile, wasihlanza kuzo izono 

zetu ngelake igazi ; 
Unga ute ngoko wasa imali yami ku- 

bananeli, ndaza ndati ndakufika 

ndazuza into yami ngenani ; 

Akuguquka ekwoneni kwake, ivenza 
okulungileyo ; 

Ndakuba ndivile ndabona ; 



He lifted up his eyes, and saw the 
place afar off. 

And the first went, and poured out 
his vial upon the earth. 

I was sick, and ye visited me. 

Who loved us, and washed us from 
our sins in his own blood. 

Thou oughtest therefore to have put 
my money to the exchangers, and 
then at my coming I should have 
received my own with interest. 

When he turneth away from his wick- 
edness, and doeth that which is 
right. 

When I had heard and seen. 



1. The past tenses are also followed by the augmented 
forms, or by one of the participles. As: — 

For we have seen — , and have come 



Ngokuba sibe sibona — , sasize kumbe- 

desha ; 
Yena nimtabatile, naye nimlcurusesha ; 
Babedesha bekonza kodaliweyo ngape- 

zu kwom-Dali ; 
Ngenindipulapule ningatukululanga e- 

Kirete ; 



to worship him. 

Him ye have taken, and have crucified. 

And worshipped and served the crea- 
ture, more than the Creator. 

Ye should have hearkened unto me, 
and not have loosed from Crete. 



2. The past tenses of the Potential mood are frequently 
followed by the present, Subjunctive. As: — ■ 



Ngenikupe amehlo enu, nindlnike 

wona; 
Ange elindile angavumi ukuba indhlu 

yake igqotyozwe ; 



Ye would have plucked out your own 
eyes, and have given them to me. 

He would have watched, and not have 
suffered his house to be broken 
through. 

385. A latter verb sometimes takes the same form as the 
antecedent one, with kanjalo or kar/jako added. As : — 

Bendisifa, bendisentolongweni ka- J I was sick, and in prison : lit. t I was 
vjalo. in prison also. 

386. In some instances, again, the copulative is altogether 
omitted, the latter verb being in the same form as the ante- 
cedent one, or in a different one, according to the sense 
intended, as in the case of absolute propositions. Thus : — 



PARTS OF THE PROPOSITION. 



281 



Zonke inklobo zezilo ziyoyiswa, ziyo- 

yisiwe ngabantu ; 
Liyenza imimangaliso, — liyabakohlisa 

abemiyo pezu kwornhlaba ; 
Kalimela umntu olmnkileyo, woku- 

tanda ; 



Every kind of beasts is tamed, (and) 
hath been tamed of mankind. 

He doeth wonders, — (and) deceiveth 
them that dwell on the earth. 

Eebuke a wise man, (and) he will 
love thee. 



For the more emphatic modes of expressing the copulative, sea 
§§ 267; 545, 2; 563; 565; and 566. 

PAETS OF THE PEOPOSITION. 

387. Every proposition, whether it consist of few or many 
words, is capable of a division into two parts, usually term- 
ed, — subject and predicate. These are either simple or 
compound, incomplex or complex. 

The subject, or predicate, is simple, when it contains only one idea ; compound, 
when it includes two or more. They are incomplex, when expressed by a single 
word ; complex, when expressed by several. 

SUBJECT. 

388. The subject generally consists of a noun or pronoun 
alone, or of a noun or pronoun in connexion with other 
words, which serve to limit, or otherwise modify, their sig- 
nification. The noun, or pronoun, is termed the nominative, 
and upon this the other words, when the subject contains 
subordinate parts, are more or less dependent for their par- 
ticular form. The nominative, moreover, is formally repre- 
sented in the prefix of the verb, and to this, accordingly, 
or to that part of it which constitutes the sign of person, 
species, and number, a pronominal value is assigned. In 
most propositions, therefore, there are in point of fact two 
nominatives, the one pronominalli/ inherent in the verb, 
and the other definitely expressed by the noun or pronoun. 
Thus:— 



U-Tixo wadala umhlaba; 
Ndiya. kuhamba mina; 
Afcatandi ahabantu; 
Asateta Una : 



God, fo?-made the earth, 
/-will go, 7. 

They&o not love, these people* 
JFie-did not speak, we. 



M M 



282 TEMPORARY PREDICATE. 

PREDICATE. 

389. The predicate usually consists of a verb, or of a 
verb as the primary and ruling word, and others which are 
subordinate to it. 

The substantive verb is never used as a predicate. Where this 
occurs, therefore, the following word must be regarded as the 
proper predicate, or its leading member, and the substantive verb 
as the copula, or link of connexion. 

390. Of the subordinate parts of the predicate, that 
which is the object of the verbal action is the principal. 
This object may be either a noun or pronoun, and is imme- 
diate or mediate, near or remote. 

The object is immediate, when the verbal action passes to it without the in- 
tervention of any formal medium ; and mediate, when such intervention takes 
place. In other words, the object is immediate or mediate, according as the 
verb is used transitively or intransitively. It is near or remote, according to 
its relative situation with the verb. 

391. The immediate object of the verb is termed the «c- 
cusative, and requires additional notice from the fact of its 
being formally represented in the verbal medial, just as the 
nominative is in the verbal prefix. In those propositions, 
accordingly, where the verb which predicates is used tran- 
sitively, there may be two accusatives, as well as two nomi- 
natives, the one being pronominally resident in the verb, 
and the other definitely expressed by the noun or pronoun. 
Thus :— 

U-Tixo uyazazi into zonke; God he-Mm-knows all tilings. 

Ngesi/wkonza yena ; We ought to him- serve him. 

TEMPORAEY PREDICATE. 

392. The Kafir language possesses another peculiar fea- 
ture, in the employment of what may be termed a temporary 
predicate. This is supplied by the verb ti, which predicates 
of the subject indefinitely, as being, becoming, or doing so, 
thus leaving it to the verb of the real predicate, to define 
the kind of being or action which is intended to be express- 
ed. In this construction, the verb ti is used in that tense, 



TEMPORARY PREDICATE. 



2& 



which the time and state of the action or being require, 
whilst the verb of the real predicate usually takes its form 
according to the rules stated in §§ 380 — 384. The follow- 
ing examples exhibit the principal usages of the temporary 
predicate : — 

1. It is used before relative propositions and parentheti- 



cal clauses in general. 



As:— 



Woti osukuba ebulala ale netyala ema- 

tyaleni j 
Isgendawo yokuba bebeya kuti, ukuba 

akunqabile, bakohlise kwa nabaqa- 

shwa; 
Lusifundisa ukuba sifanele ukuti, sila- 

lila ukungabedeshi nenkanuko zom- 

hlaba, slhlale ngokuqabuka ; 
Niyazi ukuba kwoti einveni kwentsuku 

'mbini kubeYo ipasika ; 



Whosoever shall kill shall be in danger 

of the judgment. 
Insomuch that, if it were possible, 

they shall deceive the very elect. 

Teaching us that, denying ungodliness 
and worldly lusts, we should live 
soberly. 

Ye know that after two days is the 
passover. 



2. Before the subject of a proposition, whether it consist 
of the nominative alone, or of the nominative and subordinate 
parts. As : — 



Yati innqanawa yahamba ebusweni 

bamanzi ; 
Ati lomaxego omabini alilala eti 

cwaka ; 



And the ark went upon the face of 

the waters. 
The two old men sat in silence. 



3. Before the immediate or mediate object of the verb, 
either with or without accompanying parts. As : — 



Ati u-Lote amrolela pakati en- 

dhlwini ; 
Woti kuzo iziloezingengcwele utabate 

ngazibini ; 



They pulled Lot into the house. 

Of beasts that are not clean thou 
shalt take by two. 



4. Before words and phrases of modification. As : — 



Uti kodwa ubonakale ku-Yihlo osem- 

fihlekweni ; 
Woti kanjalo aliambe pambi kwake ; 
Bati ngokuzenzisa benze imitandazo 

emide; 
Ngenditi, ma-Yodi, ndanyamazela uku- 

niva: 



But that thou appear unto thy Father 

which is in secret. 
Moreover, he shall go before him. 
And for a pretence make long prayers. 

O ye Jews, reason would that I should 
bear with you. 



284 



TEMPORARY PREDICATE. 



had indignation. 
Then came to him the mother of Ze- 
bedee's children. 



5. Before two or more of the preceding usages in com- 
bination. As : — 

Bati kodwa abadisipile bake, bakubona But when his disciples saw it, they 

lonto, baqumba kunene ; 
Wati kekaloku kwa oko, unina bony ana 

baka-Zebedi, weza kuye ; 

6. Between the relative pronoun and the verb, or between 
the relative pronoun and any of the above usages. As : — 

Children are things which soon weep. 
A tree, which when he had cast into 

the waters, the waters were made 

sweet. 
For which things' sake the wrath of 

God cometh on them. 
Before whom all hearts are open. 
Who now rejoice in my sufferings. 



Abantwana zinto eziti zilile kamsinya ; 
Umti, owati akuwuposa emanzini, 
amanzi asel' eba mnandi ; 

Oti ngennxa yezizinto umsindo ka- 

Tixo uze pezu kwabo ; 
"Eziti inkliziyo zonke zivulekele kuwe ; 
Enditi kaloku ndivuye ekuveni kwam 

ubunzima j 

393. In some cases, the verb of the real predicate is used 
in a different form to that which is required by the rules in 
§§ 380—384. For example :— 

1. The present, Indicative, of the verb ti, is sometimes 
followed by a verb in the same form , or by one in the aorist, 
or perfect, Indicative, according as the sense intended may 
demand. As : — 



Nditi ke ukuqala, ndibulela ku-Tixo 

wami j 
Oti ngelixesha wasipa ufefe ; 
Siti ke ngoko situmile u-Yudasi no- 

Silasi ; 



First then, I thank 



my 



God. 



Who hast given us grace at this time. 
We have sent therefore Judas and 

Silas. 



2. The first future, Indicative, and the present, Poten- 
tial, of the verb ti, are sometimes followed by verbs in the 
same form. As : — 



Ndoti ke ngoko, xa ndiyifezileyo lento, 
ndodhlula ngakuni ukuza e-Spayine ; 

Ungati ukuba uyatanda, ungandilrfa- 
mbulula j 



When therefore I have performed this, 
I will come by you into Spain. 

If thou wilt, thou canst make me 
clean. 



EUPHONIC CONCORD. 285 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OE CONSTRUCTION. 

EUPHONIC CONCORD. 

394. The principles which are found to influence the con- 
cordance of Kafir words, as well as their mutual depen- 
dency upon each other, are widely different from those which 
govern the languages of either Europe or Asia. In any of 
these, a harmony of gender and number, and in some, a 
harmony of case, is essential to the agreement of many of 
the parts of speech. In this language, however, the whole 
grammatical construction is regulated by another and totally 
different principle, namely, that which has been termed, 
the Euphonic concord. With the exception of the single 
inflected form of the noun, and a few changes of which the 
root of the verb is susceptible, in the formation of some of 
the tenses, all grammatical variations of form are effected 
by means of prefixes, which evolve a regular and uniform 
system of alliteration. In the practical working of this prin- 
ciple the noun takes the lead, as upon the prefix of this 
depends the particular form of most words which are sub- 
ject to grammatical government. Each prefix has ~its cor- 
responding euphonic letter or letters, as also its own form 
of the adjective, pronoun, and verb, and likewise of the 
possessive and some other particles ; so that whilst all the 
nominal prefixes are subject to the same general principle 
of action, yet each one is independent of the others, in the 
precise form of that action. A harmony between the nom- 
inal and other alliteral prefixes or forms, therefore, is the 
essential thing in the construction of Kafir propositions. 

395. It is evident from the above remarks, that neither 
gender nor number has any direct or immediate influence, 
so far as grammatical government is concerned ; both the one 
and the other being lost sight of in the form of the prefix or 
word. 

1. The following comparison will illustrate the case of 
gender. — The three nouns, indoda, inkazana, and indhlu, 
express the same ideas as are attached to man, girl, and 
house 3 respectively. But whilst the three latter require 



286 APPOSITION. 

as many different forms of the pronoun in government, on ac- 
count of their difference in gender ; the three former have only 
one, because of their agreement in prefix. Thus, in English, 
if one were speaking of a man, he would be employed ; if of 
a girl, she ; and if of a house, it\ but, in Kafir, yona would 
be used with all, that being the corresponding pronoun to 
the prefix in. 

2. In the case of number, also, one word does not agree 
with another because it is singular or plural, but because 
there is a correspondency between their prefixes. For though 
this distinction has more influence in the language than that 
of gender, yet it is of the same mediate and secondary cha- 
racter, the form being in both instances the true subject of 
grammatical government. 

APPOSITION. 

396. Another principle which is found to prevail in the 
construction of Kafir propositions, is that of apposition ; 
according to which, words are said to be in logical, though 
not in formal agreement. 

A word agrees with another logically, when such agreement is discoverable 
from the sense alone. "Words agree formally, when the agreement is manifest 
from some change which they have undergone in their form, according to the 
general usages of the language. 

397. As the former principle, then, supersedes a har- 
mony of gender and number, inasmuch as that is not the 
primary object of grammatical government, so this, in like 
manner, supersedes a harmony of case. Thus, adjectives 
and pronouns agree with their nouns simply according to 
the form of their characteristic prefixes, without reference 
to any accidental appendage which they may have received, 
or any change which they may have undergone. 



THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 



287 



CONCORDANCE OF THE PRINCIPAL PAETS. 

398. The principal parts of the proposition are the nom- 
inative, the verb, and, in a subordinate sense, the accu- 
sative. 



THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 

399. The verb concords with its nominative in person, 
species, and number, by means of the verbal prefix which 
corresponds to the form of the latter. Thus : — 

A T dapendula m'na I answered 

.Sapendula Una. We answered 

£/yabizwa wena Thou art called 

A7yabizwa ?«'na Ye are called 

Ctsho ?*-Kama Kama says so 

Bat&no abantu People say so 

Ilitye liwile The stone has fallen 

Amatye owile The stones have fallen 

Tttto flungisiwe The thing is made right 

Izinto xilungisiwe The things are made right 

Isitya sizele The basket is full 

Izitya zizele The baskets are full 

Uluti /wapukile The rod is broken ' 

Izinti zapukile The rods are broken 

Umii uyah\uma The tree is growing 

Imiti fyahluma The trees are growing 

U b usuku bu fikile Night has arrived 

Ukuiya. fcupekiwe Food has been cooked 

400. When there are two or more nominatives of the same 
species, and of the singular number, the verb sometimes 
agrees with their corresponding plural prefix. As : — 

Thy father and thy mother shall bo 
glad. 

ake The heart of Pharoahand his servants 
was turned against the people. 

ye- Whose is this image and superscrip- 
tion ? 



PER. 


SPE. 


NUM. 


I 




sing. 






plur. 


II 




sing. 
plur. 


III 


1 


sing. 


, . 


.. 


plur. 


, . 


2 


sing. 


. . 


.. 


plur. 


, , 


3 


sing. 


. . 


.. 


plur. 


. , 


4 


sing. 




.. 


plur. 


.. 


5 


sing. 






plur. 




6 


sing. 


•• 


7 


plur. 


.. 


8 





Uyihlo nonyoko boba nemihlali ; 

Inkliziyo ka-Faro neyezicaka ; 

zaguqukela ngakubo abantu ; 
Umfanekiso lo kwa nombalo Io, 

kabanina ? 



401. If the nominatives have different prefixes, and their 
signification admits of it, they are sometimes classed to- 
gether as persons or things. In the former case, the verb 



THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 



Pilate and the Jews appointed soldiers 

to guard it. 
And they were both naked, the man 

and his wife. 
Heaven and earth are full of the glory 

of Clod. 



concords with bona, the personal pronoun corresponding to 
abantu ; and in the latter, with zo?ia, the personal pronoun 
corresponding to izinto. As : — 

U-Pilati nama-Yodi badala {bona) 

amasodati ukuvarasha lona ; 
Babe ze (bona) bobabini, indoda nom- 

fazi wayo ; 
Izulu nomhlaba zizele (zona) bubu- 

ngcwalisa buka-Tixo ; 

402. More generally, however, where the verb has two 
or more nominatives, it either takes the impersonal form, 
or it concords with the nearest, or with that which is the 
principal actor. Thus : — 

Heaven and earth shall pass away. 
Grace and truth have met together. 
Noah and all his family were saved. 

When thy flesh and thy body are 
consumed. 

And the sun and the air were dar- 
kened. 

Both rivers and pools were full. 

Michael and his angels fought a- 
gainst the dragon. 

is a personal pronoun, it is 



Kwobuba izulu nomhlaba ; 
Kuhlangene ufefe nennyaniso ; 
Kwasindisiva u-Nowa nosapo lwake 

lwonke ; 
Nxa isihlunu sako nomzimba wako 

ububileyo ; 
Laza ilanga nezulu Zamnyama; 

Yaizele nemilambo namacibi ; 
U-Mikayeli namangelosi ake walwa 
nennamba ; 

403. When the nominative 



usually omitted, as the verbal prefix not only indicates its 
form, but also includes its meaning. 

1. But it is sometimes used for the sake of emphasis or 
precision. As: — 



Sendishiywe ndedwa mina ; 

Wena uya kugweba pezu kwetu ngen- 

nene na ? 
Nina niyityuwa yomhlaba ; 
Ngokuba bona beya kuhlutiswa ; 
Sabuya tina, sasala sona ; 



And I am left alone. 

Shalt thou indeed reign over us ? 

Ye are the salt of the earth. 

For they shall be filled. 

We returned, and he remained. 



2. It is also used whenever the copulative na is required 
in connexion with it. As : — 



Nami ndoka ndinibuze ; 
Naive uya kunqanyulwa ; 
Ondiligosa nami j 
Zilungile nazo\ 



I also will ask you. 
Thou also shalt be cut off. 
Who am also a steward. 
They are good also. 



THE ACCUSATIVE AND VERB. 



289 



404. If there be two or more nominatives of different 
persons, the verb concords with the first person, plural, ra- 
ther than with the second, and with the second person, 
plural, rather than with the third. Sometimes, also, it 
concords with the nearest one. Thus : — 

Behold thy father and I hare sought 
thee sorrowing. 



Uyabona ke, uyihlo nanii besikufuna 

silusizi ; 
Ukuba niina nabantu bako sifumene 

ufefe ebusweni bako ; 
Oya kukululwa ngawo, ivena nendhlu 

yako yonke ; 
Kdimi nabantu band abakohlakeleyo ; 



That I and thy people have found grace 

in thy sight. 
"Whereby thou and all thy house shall 

be saved. 
I and my people are wicked. 



405. Where the same noun or pronoun is nominative to 
two or more verbs, the concordance is sustained by each, 
but the particular form of the latter verb or verbs, depends 
upon rules which are stated elsewhere. See §§ 3S0 — 384. 



THE ACCUSATIVE AND VERB. 



406. The verb concords with its accusative in person, 
species, and number, by means of the verbal medial which 
corresponds to the prefix of the latter. Thus : — 



Utt<ftxolele wn'na Thou hast forgiven me 

Us/xolele Una. Thou hast forgiven us 

NdaAwsindisa wena, I saved thee 

Ndiya?*/xelela m'na . # .. .. I tell you 

U-Satani wamkohlisa ?*-Eva Satan deceived Eve 

Uya&azi abantu bonke . . . . Thou knowest all men 

Za/ishiya z'kaya lazo They left their home 

Uyaw/fldela a7vaz\s'\ ami He despises my words 

7«dhlovu asi^oyiki We fear not the elephant 

Uya^/gcina zonke izinto . . He preserves all things 

Was/beta feicaka sami . . . . He beat my servant 

Uya^/bala Izono zami . . . . Tbou reckonest my sins 

Wa/u-apula uhni lwami . . .. He broke my rod 

Uyazifundisa f»tsapo .. .. He teaches the children 

U-Tixo Uit-enzile wmhlaha. . . God made the earth 

Uyiwele imilzmbo He has forded the rivers 

\Jbuty\\e ubusi He has eaten the honey 

UA-wcitile ukudhla, You have wasted the food 

N N 



PER. 


SPE. 


NUM. 


I 




sing, 
plur. 


II 




sing, 
plur. 


III 


1 


sing, 
plur. 


" 


2 


sing, 
plur. 


•• 


3 


sing. 
plur. 




4 


sing, 
plur. 


•« 


5 


sing. 
plur. 




6 


sing, 
plur. 




7 






8 





290 



THE ACCUSATIVE AND VERB, 



407. When the accusative is a personal pronoun, it is 
usually omitted, as the verbal medial sufficiently denotes 
both its form and meaning. Thus : — 

The serpent deceived me. 

The wrath of man shall praise thee. 

And he will save us. 

God hath made you. 

It is sometimes used, however, for similar reasons to those 
given in § 403, in reference to the personal pronoun when 
nominative. As : — 



Innyoka yaradikohlisa ; 
Umsindo womntu wo/cudumisa 
Waeya kusisindisa ; 
U-Tixo uw/dalile ; 



Him hath God exalted. 
But they knew not him. 
Defend us thy servants. 
Prepare me also a lodging place. 
Your heavenly Father will also for- 
give you. 
They woimded him also. 

408. Where the noun or pronoun is accusative to two or 
more verbs, the medial is repeated with each, and the con- 
cordance is thus sustained by all. Thus : — 



TJ-Tixo umpakamisile yena ; 
Kuloko bona bengamazanga yena ; 
Usilwele Una 'zicaka zako ; 
Zundilungisele nami indawo yokuhlala ; 
Woti no-Yihlo wasezulwini anixolele 

nani ; 
Basilimaza naso ; 



Umntu wenzelwa ukumazi, nokum- 
tanda, nokumkonza u-Tixo ; 

Babefanele uku/«va yena kakulu, baw- 
lulamele ; 



Man was made to know, love, and 
serve God. 

They ought to hear and obey him im- 
plicitly. 



409. When there are two or more accusatives to the same 
verb, the form of the verbal medial is influenced by similar 
rules to those which affect that of the prefix, when the verb 
has two or more nominatives ( §§ 400, 401, and 404-). 
Thus:— 



AVaye u-Tixo waiambesa u-Adame 
no-Eva ; 

Waye u-Tixo wa&atamsanqela {bona) 
indoda nomfazi ; 

Ihashe nomkweli walo uZ>«posele {bo- 
na) elwandhle; 

Wasituka (tina) sobabini, mina no- 
nyana warn ; 

Waacftfaka entolongweni, kwa mina 
nenkosi yaboji ; 



And God clothed Adam and Eve. 

And God blessed the man and woman. 

The horse and his rider hath he thrown 

into the sea. 
He reviled both me and my son. 

And he put both me and the chief 
baker in ward. 



POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS. 291 



410. In all constructions, however, it is a very general 
usage for the verbal medial to be omitted, where the noun 
or pronoun is expressed, and vice versa. Thus : — 



Kditembele wena ; 

Osukuba esarakela nina, uyamkela 

mina ; 
Walilula amanzi ; 
"Wandula u-Faro wabiza u-Mosesi no- 

Arone; 
U-Tixo wadala izulu nomhlaba ; 
Ndopa inzalo yako elilizwe ; 
Kdandiya kunika wena nenzalo yako 

ilizwe ; 
Wonifundisa into zonke ; 
Wamnika izitskixo : 



I have trusted in thee. 

He that receiveth you, receiveth me. 



He separated the waters. 

Then Pharoah called Moses and Aa- 
ron. 

Grod created the heavens and the earth. 

I will give this land to thy seed. 

And I will give to thee and thy seed 
the land. 

He will teach you all things. 

He gave him the keys. 

411. From the preceding principles of concordance it fol- 
lows, that the Kafir verb expresses a complete proposition 
in itself, all the principal parts being formally distinguished 
in its composition. Thus, — Wamkohlisa; He deceived 
her: — represents the same proposition indefinitely, as the 
following one does definitely, — U-Satard wamkolilisa u- 
Eva. Hence, the former kind of propositions may be term- 
ed indefinite, and the latter, definite propositions. 

POSITION OP THE PEIXCIPAL PAETS. 



412. As the verb includes 
according to § 388, it follows 
which constitutes the true or 
either to follow or precede it. 
obtain in the language. Thus 

Wada wemka ke umntu kulondawo ; 

Wesuka u-Saule emhlabeni ; 

Kuze zaqiniswa iremente elukolweni ; 

Izidenge ziyahleka ukwona ; 
Indhlu yokohlakeleyo yocitwa ; 

Ukidungisa kuyadumisa isizwe ; 



a nominative in its form, 
that the noun or pronoun 
definite nominative, is free 

Both usages, accordingly, 

At length the man departed from that 

place. 
And Saul arose from the earth. 
And so were the churches established 

in the faith. 
Fools make a mock at sin. 
The house of the wicked shall be 

overthrown. 
Righteousness exalteth a nation. 



Those people thanked for that word. 
Wherein were all manner of beasts. 



292 POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

1. When the nominative follows the verb, the whole pred- 
icate may sometimes precede the subject. As : — 

Balibulela he elozwi abantu abo ; 
Zabezilco ngapakati kwayo zonke inklo- 
bo zezilo; 

2. When the temporary predicate is used, the subject 
generally intervenes between this and the verb of the real 
predicate, thus preceding the one, but following the other. 
In a similar manner, the subject is often interposed between 
the Idiomatic verbs, and those with which they are connect- 
ed : Occasionally, also, between the substantive verb and the 
principal one, in the compound forms of the tenses. 

413. But if the nominative or subject follow a conjunction, 
or other qualifying word, i t usually precedes the verb. Thus : — 



Kuloko amadoda olula isandhla sawo ; 
Ngokuba u- Yehova eya kutshabalalisa 

esisitade ; 
Xeshekweni u-Paulusi abefuna uku- 

ngena ; 

Where two conjunctions are used in connexion with the 
nominative or subject, it generally intervenes. Thus : — 



But the men stretched out their hand. 
For the Lord will destroy this city. 

When Paul sought to enter. . 



Ngokuba innyaniso IcwTixo ukuba ya- 

ndile ngakumbi ; 
Koko ukungalungi hwetu ukuba kuya- 

bonakalisa ukulunga kuka-Tixo; 



For if the truth of God hath more 

abounded. 
But if our righteousness commend 

the righteousness of God. 



414. In the predicate of a proposition, the accusative 
more generally follows the verb, though it often precedes it. 
The latter position, indeed, whilst it often adds emphasis 
to the idea, is at the same time quite as agreeable to it as 
the former, on account of its pronominal representation in 
the verb. Thus : — 



Ngokuba \omzi siya kuwutshabalalisa; 
Nesisalelo somsindo wosibamba wena ; 



For we will destroy this place. 

The remainder of wrath shalt thou 

restrain. 
i 
Elilivo kasalibona libaliwe enncwadini I We saw this narrative in a newspa- 

yendaba ; | per. 

The accusative, as well as some of the more subordinate 
parts of the predicate, often intervene between ti and the, 



CONCORDANCE OF NOUNS. 293 

verb of the real predicate ; and likewise between some of 
the Idiomatic verbs, and those with which they are con- 
nected. 

415. As far then as the principal parts of the proposition 
are concerned, great latitude is allowed with regard to their 
relative position ; the principles of concordance which are 
vested in the verb, rendering the flow of thought equally 
natural and easy, whether the nominative and accusative 
have the precedence of the verb, or the verb the precedence 
of them. 



CONCORDANCE AND POSITION 

OF THE 

SUBOKDIKATE PAETS OE THE PBOPOSITIOK 



CONCORDANCE OF NOUNS. 



416. When two nouns come together, both of which sig- 
nify the same person or thing, the latter usually concords 
with the former according to the principle of apposition. 
Thus :— 



Solomon the son of David. 
The teaching of John the Baptist. 
Under Pharoah the king. 
From our Lord Jesus Christ. 



U-Solomone unyana ka-Davide ; 
Imfundiso ka-Yohanesi umbapitizeshi ; 
Pantsi kwo-Faro ukumkani) 
Kwinkosi yetu u-Yesu Kristu; 

1. But the latter noun sometimes takes the relative pro- 
noun and substantive verb before it, for the sake of empha- 
sis or precision ; and in this case, therefore, the concordance 
is influenced by the Euphonic concord. As : — 



Intombazana engu-Hana ; 
Ingelosi e/ingu-Grabriyeli; 
U-Yesu oyin-Kosi ; 



The girl (which is) Hannah. 
The angel (which is) Gabriel. 
Jesus (who is) the Lord. 



i. The relative pronoun and substantive verb are sometimes 
separated from the noun in this construction, through the interven- 
tion of the verb ti in the usage noticed § 538. Thus : — 

U-Yakobi o-kutwe, ngu-Sirayeli ; Jacob, who is— it is said, Israel. 



294 CONCORDANCE OF ADJECTIVES. 

ii. In some instances the relative pronoun alone is separated, 
the substantive verb remaining before the noun. As : — 

Umntu o-kutiwa, wngu-Saule ; A person, who-it is said, is Saul. 

2. If the first noun is in one of the possessive or dative 
forms, the latter sometimes takes the same form, and thus 
shares in the same government. Thus : — 



Endhlwini ka-Simoni ?/eleperi ; 
Uyinkloko yomzimba, yeremente; 
Nitandaze ku-Yehova /cu-Tixo wenu 



In the house of Simon the leper. 

He is the head of the body, the church. 

And intreat the Lord your God. 

417. Nouns are also used in apposition with the personal 
pronouns, in which case they usually elide their initial 
vowels. Thus : — 

Tina 'zicaka zako ; We thy servants. 

Zundipate ngofefe mina 'moni\ Be merciful to me a sinner. 

CONCORDANCE OF ADJECTIVES. 

418. Adjectives concord with their nouns in species ?nd 
number, according to the class of the former, and the prefix 
of the latter. Thus : — 



Umf&zi omde ; 
Abaniu Jonke; 
Ilitje elikvlu ; 
Amazvn c7w«ninzi ; 
Jwgubo emnyama j 
Izinto zivdhi ; 
&c. 



A tall woman. 
All people. 
A large stone. 
Many words. 
A black garment. 
Other things. 
&c. 



419. When an adjective is used in connexion with a verb 
of the first or second persons, that form of the adjective is 
employed which corresponds to the first species. As : — 

Ndimlculu mina ; I am great. 

Siyakwenza mkulu ; We make thee great. 

Bibaninz i tina ; We are many. 

Wibaninzi nani ; Ye are many also. 

This construction is elliptical, and arises from the usual custom 
of omitting the relative pronoun of the prefixes of adjectives, 
when preceded by verbs. Thus, NdimTculu is for Ndingomlculu ; 
I am (he who is) great: Sibaninzi is for Smgxbaninzi ; We are 
(they who are) many ; and so on. 



POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 295 

But onke, and its numeral compounds the multiplicative s> 
have forms which correspond to the first and second persons, 
and these, therefore, agree with the verb and pronoun in the 
required person. Thus : — 

Ubawo wetu sonhe ; The Father of us all. 

Silapa sobabini ; We are both here. 

420. When an adjective is the predicate of a proposition, 
and refers to two or more nouns, its prefix corresponds to 
that of the copula. In this case, accordingly, the concor- 
dance will depend upon that of the nominative and verb. 

421. When two or more adjectives are used in connexion 
with one noun, they all concord with it, but the sign of con- 
nexion (na) between the adjectives themselves is usually 
omitted, where each qualifies the same object. As : — 



Waka itempile enkulu enkle ; 
Benza iniimangaliso eniininzi enzima 
ngakuye ; 



He built a large (and) splendid temple. 
They laid many (and) grievous com- 
plaints against him. 



422. When adjectives refer to persons indefinitely, the 
nouns umntu and abantu are often omitted. (Compare § 428) 
Thus :— 



Omkulu wokonza Jcwomncinane ; 
Sohamba nabatsha betu, nabadala 

betu; 
Ukuba atwale izono zabaninzi ; 
Abanye nibasindise ngokwoyika ; 

The indefinite form of the adjective is also used without a 
noun expressed. As: — 



The elder shall serve the younger. 
We will go with our young, and 

with our old. 
That he should bear the sins of many. 
And others save with fear. 



Angenza Jconke akutandayo ; 
Kukupina ohubi akwenzileyo ? 



He can do whatsoever he will. 
What evil hath he done 1 



423. If an adjective is used with a noun which denotes 
the female sex, it sometimes takes the feminine affix kazi. 

As:— 

Imazi emhlopehazi ; A white cow. 



POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 



424. The general rule with regard to the position of ad- 
jectives is, that they follow their nouns. 



296 



CONCORDANCE OF PRONOUNS. 



1, But the indefinite adjectives nye and onke frequently 
precede their nouns. As : — 



Abanye abantu j 
Zonke izinto : 



Other people. 
All things. 



2. Numeral and other adjectives, also, sometimes precede 
their nouns. As : — 



Watuma hsbbabini abadisipile bake ; 
Kwaye kwenziwe emininzi imiqondiso 

nemimangaliso ; 
Wahlala y&yimbi imihla isixenxe ; 
Nelitile iciko lokuteta ; 
Tandani ke ngengcwele inkliziyo kaku- 

lu; 



He sent forth two of his disciples. 
There were many signs and wonders 

wrought. 
He waited other seven days. 
And a certain orator. 
Love one another with a pure heart 

fervently. 



CONCORDANCE OF PRONOUNS. 

425. The several kinds of pronouns concord with the 
nouns which they represent, or with which they are united, 
in person, species, and number, according to the prefixes 
of the latter, as shown in the tables of a preceding part. 

426. The demonstrative and possessive pronouns, when 
they refer to two or more nouns, are repeated with each, or 
concord with the nearest. As : — 



Zomfanekiso nesibalo esi; 
Uniteteleli wetu nomtandazeli ivetu, 
Umzimba ndmpefumlo waho ; 
Ngramandhla nobungfcvvele betu : 



This image and (this) superscription. 
Our advocate and (our) intercessor. 
Thy body and soul. 
Through our power and holiness. 



427. The relative pronoun, when nominative to a verb and 
referring to two or more correlatives, either concords with 
them collectively as persons or things, or takes the indefinite 
form. In such circumstances, accordingly, the relative con- 
cords with the personal pronoun indicated by the form of the 
verb. Thus : — 



U-Mosesi no- Arone abateta no-Faro 



Isonka neveyine okwaxelwa yin-Kosi ; 



Moses and Aaron who spake with 
Pharoah. 

Bread and wine which were command- 
ed bv the Lord. 



The indefinite form is likewise used, where the correlative 



CONCORDANCE OF PRONOUNS. 



297 



consists of a sentence, or of that which expresses some gen- 
eral idea, As : — 



-Okungumbonakaliso wokugweba 
okulungileyo kuka-Tixo ; 



-"Which is a manifest token of the 
righteous judgment of God. 



428. The relative pronouns of the third person, first spe- 
cies, when nominatives to verbs, are often used with the 
correlative understood ; or rather, they frequently include 
the correlative in themselves, expressing he or him who, in 
the singular, and they or them who, in the plural, according 
to the construction. Thus : — 



Ongxeleshayo ubang' isixake ; 
Iteniba /okohlakeleyo lobuba ; 
^balungisayo abaji kuhlelwa 'nto; 
Innene yabalungileyo iyabakapa ; 



He that winketh with the eye 

causeth sorrow. 
The hope of him who is wicked 

shall perish. 
No evil shall happen to them who 

are just. 
The integrity of the upright shall 

guide them. 

The indefinite form of the relative pronoun, also, is some- 
times used without a correlative, in which case it expresses 
that which or what. As : — 

Benza okungafanele ukwenziwa 

ngemmini yecawa ; 
Wenzile okulungileyo ; 



They do that which is not lawful 
to be done on the sabbath-day. 
He hath done what is right. 



429. The relative pronouns of the third species, first per- 
son, when referring to a correlative understood, according 
to the preceding section, are often used in connexion with 
personal pronouns of the first and second persons, as in the 
following examples : — 

Tina 'banamandhla ; 
Mna 'baqalekisiweyo; 
Akusenclimi okwenzayo ; 



Beninini ababepika ; 



We who have strength. 

Ye who are cursed. 

It is no more I that do it. 

It was ye who were contending. 



But this construction is evidently elliptical, in consequence 
of the omission of the correlative with which the relative and 
verb concord, and which is understood, in the above and 
similar examples, to be in apposition with the preceding pro- 

o o 



298 POSITION OF PRONOUNS. 

nouns, as in § 417. Thus, tina 'banamandhla is elliptical for 
Una 'bantu abanamandhla, the noun abantu being the un- 
derstood correlative, in apposition with Una. In a similar 
manner umntu is understood with the singular pronouns. 
For the omission of the relative in some of the examples, see 
§ 434, 1. 

430. When the relative pronoun is the object of a verb, 
it concords, not with the correlative, but with the nominative. 
In these circumstances, therefore, its concordance depends 
upon that of the verb. 

But when the verb is used impersonally, the relative 
sometimes takes the form of e as well as that of o. See ex- 
amples in § 443. 

POSITION OF PRONOUNS. 

431. Demonstrative pronouns, when used with chiefly a 
definite force as in § 509, generally follow their nouns. In 
other circumstances they usually precede them. 

432. The possessive pronouns follow their nouns, like 
other possessive forms. But when the relative is prefixed, 
according to § 516, the reverse takes place, as shown in 
some of the examples there given. 

433. The relative pronouns are prefixed to the verb, 
whether used subjectively or objectively. In the latter case, 
therefore, the construction may at first sight appear awkward, 
especially where the nominative precedes the verb, as in 
such circumstances it necessarily precedes the relative also. 
On this point it will be sufficient to observe, that the prin- 
ciples of concordance obviate any difficulty. It is a frequent 
usage, however, for the relative pronouns to be omitted, and 
the different circumstances, accordingly, in which such o- 
mission occurs, may be here stated. (See note 66, p. 303.) 

OMISSION OF EELATIVE PEONOTJNS. 

434. As nominative to the verb, the relative is often omit- 
ted :— 

1. After personal pronouns of thejfr^and second persons, 



OMISSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 299 



whether it concords with them, or with the understood cor 
relative as in § 429. Thus :— 



Mina nditetayo ; 
Wena ubonayo ; 
Tina sibe sitwele ubunziina ; 

Kuti bangahambiyo ngayo 

innyama ; 
Nani nimoyilcayo ; 
Nina ialukolo luncinane ; 
Nina iatska; 



I wlio speak. 

Thou who scost. 

Vv r e who have borne the 

burden. 
In us who walk not after 

the flesh. 
And ye who fear him. 
O ye of little faith. 
Ye who are young. 



As 



2. After a negative form of the substantive verb. 

Of that day and that hour knoweth no 
man. 



Akuko 'mntu waziyo lommini nelo 

xesha ; 
Auko 'nto iyitintelayo ; 



There is nothing wliich stops it. 



3. After demonstrative and demonstrative personal pro- 
nouns. As : — 



Dumisa lovvo ivenzayo izulu; 

Abo baleleyo kuyo ; 

Ezona zifuywayo kwelozwe ; 

Wayibonisa oyena nguye (§ 532) ngo- 

kumanga ; 
Nakulowo wliranuka ; 
Abo Sanamandhla ; 



Praise him who made heaven. 
Those which are asleep in it. 
Those which are kept in that country. 
He showed them (that) which was he 

by kissing- him. 
And to him that is a sojourner. 
Those who are with strength. 



In these, and all other cases, where the relative is omit- 
ted after the demonstrative and demonstrative personal 
pronouns, they may be considered as compound relatives, 
expressing this and that ivhich, these and those which, &c, 
according to the construction. — See also §§ 158; 280, 4, i; 
308, 1 ; and 500, 2, ii. 

435. As the object of a verb, in the sense of idiom or 
which, the relative is sometimes omitted after demonstrative 
and demonstrative personal pronouns, as well as in other cir- 
cumstances. Compare some of the examples in § 443. 

436. The relative is also frequently omitted, where it is 
employed for the conjunction that, according to § 521. See 
examples in §§ 487 and 497. 

437. The particle yo 3 likewise, which is affixed in con- 



300 



CONCORDANCE OF PARTICIPLES. 



nexion with the relative pronoun, to certain tenses of the 
verb, according to § 180, is sometimes omitted, when the 
relative occurs as nominative to the verb, more particularly 
where the latter is followed by an immediate object, or by 
some qualifying word. As : — 



Otemba ubutyebi bake wovva ; 



Oyenza gvvenxa imikwa yake ; 
Oqumba 'msinya uyenza ngobudenge ; 

Ohamba ngobulumko wosindiswa ; 



He tbat trusteth in his riches shall 
fall. 

He that perverteth bis ways. 

He that is soon angry dealeth fool- 
isbly. 

He that vvalketh wisely shall be de- 
livered. 

Yo is sometimes omitted, also, when the relative is used 
for the conjunction that. Compare examples in § 521. 

438. In some cases, again, the relative pronoun and affix 
yo are both omitted. As : 

Akuko 'mntu ubeka isiziba senncawa There is no man (who) putteth a 

entsha ; piece of new cloth. 

U-Tixo lowo ubona akangele zonke God, who (that-which) sees all 

izinto ; things. 

CONCORDANCE OF PARTICIPLES. 

439. The participles concord with the noun or pronoun, 
to which the action or state of being they express is attrib- 
uted, in the same way as the tenses of the verb concord 
with the nominative. Thus : — 

Jesus, knowing their wickedness. 



U-Yesu, csazi inkohlakalo yabo ; 
Baza bati bona, behanjisiva yireme- 

nte ; 
Ati amadoda, esulca kona; 
Yena, ebona u-Petrosi no-Yohanesi 

beza kungena etempileni ; 
Ufefe, netaru, noxolo, zivela ku- 

Tixo: 



And they, being brought on their 

way by the church. 
And the men, leaving that place. 
He, seeing Peter and John about to 

go into the temple. 
Grace, mercy, and peace, coming 

from God. 



CONCORDANCE OF PARTICLES. 

440. The adverbs edwa and odiva, and likewise the de- 
monstrative adverbs, concord with the nouns or pronouns 
to which they refer, in person, species, and number, ac- 
cording to §§ 342 and 350. 



THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 



301 



441. Prepositions, also, sometimes concord with a pre- 
ceding noun, by taking the required form of the relative 
pronoun and substantive verb before them. As : — 



Ndingumntu opantsi /iwobukosi ; 
Kwa nento zonke e~/pezu kwalo 



I am a man (who is) under authority. 
And all things (which are) upon it. 



On the same principle, the relative pronoun and present, In- 
dicative, of the substantive verb, are sometimes used before the 
mediate forms of nouns and pronouns, which express prepositions 
in themselves. As : — 



Nezinto zonke ezikulo ; 
Bonke abantu afozsesitadeni ; 



And all things (which are) therein. 
All the people (which are) in the city. 



COXCOKDAXCE OF THE XOMESATIYE AESOLUTE. 

442. A noun or pronoun is termed the nominative abso* 
lute, when found in a proposition without any formal agree- 
ment with the verb, and yet evidently related to it in sense. 
In this construction, accordingly, the concordance depends 
upon the principle of apposition. The noun, in this usage, 
defines or limits the verbal action, with regard to the nature 
or extent of its application to the nominative or accusative. 
Pronouns are used in a looser and more independent man- 
ner. The nominative absolute, therefore, requires the addi- 
tion of some such phrase as with respect to, as for, §c., in 
order to its being intelligibly translated into English. The 
following examples will illustrate this method of construc- 
tion: — 



Wati u-Kama ukupendula kwake ; 

Zaye zisanda imilila ngemihla, inani 

lazo j 
Babuyela e- Jipete, inklixiyo zaho ; 

Ebeyiminyaka yamakulu niatandatu, 

ubudala bake ; 
Waninqunila indldebe ke ; 

"Wabona ukuba isiqwala idunibe ka- 
kulu unijaivo ; 



Kama said (with regard to) his an- 
swering : i. e. in answer. 

And they increased daily (in respect 
to) their number : i. e. in number. 

And in their hearts turned back again 
into Egypt. 

He was six hundred years (in respect 
to) his age : i. e. 600 years old. 

He cut him off (with regard to) the 
car : i. e. He cut off his ear. 

He saw that it was lame, being greatly 
swollen (as to) the foot. 



302 



THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 



INgokuba bebengabenzi benteute, urrt' 

sebenzi wabo ; 
U-Tixo inklalo yake ezulwini yonwa- 

bilej 
Xeshekweni innxenye bebeteta ngayo 

iterapile ; 
Innqaba eya kufikelela ezulwini, in- 

gcopo yayo ; 
Kanti mina 3 utandazo lwami lusinga 

kuwe; 
Lo ukuzikupa kwake idemoni kungaye 

u-Belizebube ; 
Omnye ziyafana zonke, ukuzibuJca kwa- 
ke j 



For they were tent-makers (as to) 

their occupation. 
(As to) God his state in heaven is a 

happy one. 
When (as respects) some (they) spake 

of the temple. 
A tower which should reach to heaven 

(with regard to) its top. 
But (as for) me, my prayer is unto 

thee. 
(As for) this one he casteth out devils 

through Beelzebub. 
(To) another they are all alike (in re- 
spect to) his regarding them. 



Both the nominative and the accusative, when they precede 
their verbs, are somewhat analagous in force to a nominative 
absolute, especially when used in connexion with conjunctions 
or other particles, often admitting, in such cases, of the same 
mode of translation. Thus: — 



INgokuba u-Abraliame ukuba ebegwe- 

tyelwe ngayo imisebenzi ; 
Wena ngokuba ubupulapula ilizwi 

lomfazi wako ; 
Kodwa nina aniko ennyameni ; 

Ngokuba unqweno ndinge ndingalwazi ; 

Pofu umteto siwenza into enganto nga- 
lo ukolo yinina ? 



For (as regards) Abraham, if he were 
justified by works. 

(As to) thee, because thou hast heark- 
ened to the voice of thy wife. 

But (as to) you, ye are not in the 
flesh. 

For (as regards) lust, I had not 
known it. 

But (with respect to) the law, do we 
make it void through faith then ? 

443. The relative pronoun requires a more particular 
exemplification in consequence of its frequent use in this 
construction. It has been already intimated (§183), that 
when the relative occurs as the object of a verb, it has no 
formal means of expressing the various modifications of 
whom or which. In order to supply this deficiency, the per- 
sonal pronouns are employed, in their different forms, or in 
connexion with prepositions, which thus represent the object 
referred to in the required formal relationship, whilst the 
relative pronoun itself simply indicates a logical relation- 
ship, after the manner of a nominative absolute. The fol- 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 



303 



lowing examples, arranged according to the several forms 
in which the personal pronouns are chiefly used in this 
construction, will afford a full illustration of these remarks, 
as well as of some others which have been made in previous 
sections, in connexion with the different usages of the rela- 
tive pronoun and affix ?/o. 66 

Whom or ioliic%. 



PIEST MODE. 



Bonke ondiiataiidaz/o ; 
Into ay ibona yo umntu ; 
Igwele owabe/itabate umfazi ; 
Zabuta bonke eza.bafums.nayo ; 

Akundazisanga oyena uya ku??ztuma 

nami ; 
Kclingu-Yesu u»*bandezela?/o ; 

Wafinca unilarnbo iruiamba yaivuku- 
pa#o enilonyeni wayo ; 



All (as to) whom I love them. 
A tiling (as to) which a man sees it. 
Meal (as to) which a woman took it. 
They gathered together all (as to} 

whom they found them. 
Thou hast not let me know him (as to) 

whom thou wilt send him with me. 
I am Jesus (as to) whom thou perse- 

cutest him. 
And swallowed up the flood (as to) 

which the dragon cast it out of his- 

mouth. 



The affix yo is only used in this the first mode of expressing the 
immediate object, in this construction of the 'relative pronoun. 



Umkiwane owabuqalekisa ivona ; 
Ngennxa yetu ekuya kubalelwa Una ; 
Itamsanqa abetandazele lona ; 



SECOXD MODE. 

The fig tree (as to) which thou curs- 
edst it. 

For us (as to) whom it shall be im- 
puted to us. 

The blessing (as to) which he had 
prayed for it. 

The above two methods of expressing one immediate ob- 
ject in connexion with the relative pronoun, are usually 
kept distinct ; the personal pronoun being omitted, if the 
medial is used, and vice versa. When the verb has two 
immediate objects, the verbal medial represents the nearer 



66 It may afford some assistance to 
the student, in reference to the above 
and other usages of the Kafir relative 
pronoun, to compare Ewald's Heb. 



Oram. §§ 588—592, and Lee's Hek 
Gram. §§ 177, 2—3; 216, 13—14; 
and 230, 5—6. 



304 



THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 



one, and the personal pronoun the remoter one, the latter 
indicating the formal relationship of the relative. 

The tale (as to) which you were tell- 
ing me it. 

The words (as to) which thou gavest 
me them. 

The commandments (as to) which we 
gave you them. 

To the land (as to) which the Lord 
will give you it. 



Imbali wabeundixoxela yona ; 
Amazwi lawo obunclinikile wona ; 
Imiyalelo csaninika yona ; 
Ezweni «ya kunipa lona u-Yehova ; 



Of whom or whic 



U-Tixo, endmgowake ; 



Ukumkani, enditi ebusweni bake ndi- 
teta ngokukalipa j 

Iremente, endcnziwe umkonzi toayo ; 

U-Sara, cnizintombi zake ; 



God, (as to) whom I am his : i. e. 
whose I am. 

The king, (as to) whom I speak freely 
in the presence of him : i. e. in whose 
presence &c. 

The church (as to) which I am made 
a minister of it. 

Sarah, (as to) whom ye are the daugh- 
ters of her. 



To whom or which , fy c 
Ilizwe ongowasemzini kulo ; 



Umfazi csibe siteta huye ; 

Abo kwabekungatetwanga ngaye Jcubo, 
bobona ; 



Lowo endikolwa huye ; 



A land (as to) which thou art a stran- 
ger in it. 

The woman (as to) whom we were 
speaking to her. 

Those (as to) whom there had not been 
spoken of him to them, they shall 
see. 

Him (as to) whom I believe in him. 



By whom or which , Sf c . 



Into eniya kuncedwa yiyo ; 
Unyana endikoliwe kakulu nguye ; 
Isicaka sakohliswa siso ; 
U-Mariya obekuzalwa nguye u-Yesu ; 



A thing (as to) which you will be 
helped by it. 

A son (as to) whom I am well pleased 
in him. 

A servant (as to) whom we were de- 
ceived by him. 

Mary, (as to) whom there was born 
Jesus of her. 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 



305 



Through whom or ivhich, Sf c 

Ixego nabeniteta ngalo-, 



Ixesha aja. kuza ngalo ; 

Immini f ndiya kusisela ngayo ; 

]S~giiye lo ekubaliwe vgaye ; 

Eyesibini indawo u-Adame abefana no- 
Tixo ngayo, bubungcwele ; 



The old man (as to) whom ye spake 

of him. 
The time (as to) which he will come 

in it. 
The day (as to J which I shall drink 

it in it. 
This is he, (as to) whom it is written 

of him. 
The second thing (as to) which Adam 

was like Grod in it, is holiness. 



With id horn or ivhich 

Lowo okumkani bomhlaba barexezile 

naye ; 
Uya kuhlutwa noko anako ; 



Utando u-Tixo analo kuti ; 
Imfundiso yake owehla nayo ezulwini ; 



She (as to) whom the kings of the earth 
hare committed fornication with her. 

He shall be deprived of even that 
(as to) which he is with it. 

The lore (as to) which God is with it 
to us. 

His doctrine (as to) which he descend- 
ed with it from heaven. 



Wh om or which and prepositions. 

The person (as to) whom we walked 

behind him. 
Ye, (as to) whom I have gone among 

you. 
(Js to) whom we have now received 

the atonement by him. 
(Js to) the which when I had fastened 

mine eyes upon it, I considered. 



Umntu csahamba emva Jcwalce ; 
Nina, ebendihambele pakati kwenu ; 
£site kaloku samkele uxolisano n^en- 



nxa yayo ; 
Endati ndakunamatelisa amehlo ami 
pezu kwayo, ndaqiqa ; 



1. Where the verb may be used transitively with respect 
to the near object, and intransitively with respect to the 
personal pronoun ; and sometimes, also, where it may be 
used simply intransitively ; the manner of expression can be 
varied by employing the impersonal form of the present, 
Indicative, of the substantive verb, with the relative and 
the personal pronoun, as in the following examples : — 



Ufefe ekvuigalo siyamamktla ; 



The grace (as to) which it is through 
it we receive him. 



P P 



306 



THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 



Ohilcuye sinayo inkululeko ; 
Unisebenzi ekungawo uyasixolela ; 
Inazo iukloko okungazo abulala ; 



(As to) whom it is through him we 
have redemption. 

An act (as to) which it is through it 
he forgives us. 

Having heads (as to) which it is with 
them they do hurt. 

The substantive verb is sometimes omitted in the above usage, 
and the relative, accordingly, being without a verb, takes its 
form from the correlative. Thus : — 

OJcuye kungeko 'kujikajika ; 



Engayo ndinobunzima obunjalo ; 



(As £o)whom with him there is 
no variableness. 

{As to) which through it I suf- 
fer such things. 

2. There are yet other variations in the mode of expression 
adopted in this construction of the relative pronoun, as, for 
instance, where the relative is used with a different verb to 
that with which the personal pronoun is used, or where the 
personal pronoun is altogether omitted. As : — 



^bebeba u-Paulusi u??mgenisile ete- 

mpileni ; 
Nguwupina cnifunayo ukuba ndimku- 

lulele yena 1 
Yinto nina pofu esoti ubawo wetu u- 

Abrahame ufumene yona ? 

.Ekufuti ndinityele ngabo ; 
Okuhlala ubulungisa kona ; 

Izinto owabafundisayo abantu ngemi- 

zekeliso ; 
£ndite kanjako ndenza lonto e-Yeru- 

saleme ; 
JNgesiko obati bona yiheresi ; 



(As to) whom they supposed Paul had 
brought him into the temple. 

Which is he (as to) whom ye wish that 
I should release him unto you ? 

What then is it (as to) winch we shall 
say that Abraham our father hath 
found it ? 

(As to) whom I have often told you of 
them . 

(As to) which there dwelleth right- 
eousness there. 

Things (as to) which he taught the 
people by parables. 

(As to) which I did the same thing 
also at Jerusalem. 

After the way (as to) which they say 
it is heresy. 

3. The relative pronoun, moreover, is sometimes used in 
this construction, when it represents some correlative pre- 
viously expressed, or one understood according to § 428, in 
which circumstances it assumes the force of a compound 
relative, like demonstrative pronouns in § 434, 3. Thus : — 



REGIMEN OF NOUNS. 



307 



Lufuna elungamdhlayo ; 



Nendifanel' ukwenza ngayo emklotyeni 

waroi ; 
Kgoko ke, oiriA-Kvileyo kwa sekuqale- 

keni rtiakuhlale kuni ; 



Seeking him-(as /o)-whom lie may de- 
vour him. 

And that-(as /o)-which I must act ac- 
cording to it to my neighbour. 

Therefore, let tkat-(as ?o)-whick ye 
have heard it from the beginning 
abide in you. 

!N. B. The English of the several examples in the preceding section may be 
read, with two or three exceptions, either in full, or with the omission of the 
parts in italics. In the former case, it is to be regarded as the literal transla- 
tion of the Kafir ; and in the latter, it constitutes that of which the Kafir is a 
translation. 



KEGIMEN 017 WOEDS. 



REGIMEN OF NOUNS. 

444,. When the latter of two nouns is intended to limit the 
application of the former, it is used in the possessive form. 
As:— 



Umalusi wezimvu 
Ilizwi lika-Tixo ; 
Utuli hoomhlaba ; 
Izono zabantu; 



A herder of sheep. 
The word of God. 
Dust of the ground. 
Sins of the people. 



1. Where the latter noun is represented by, or connect- 
ed with, a pronoun, the rule will apply to this. As : — 



Isandhla salowo ; 
Abantu balomzi; 



The hand of that one. 
People of this place. 



2. There is a peculiarity to he noticed in reference to the 
regimen of a few nouns in the singular number, which de- 
note paternal, maternal, and similar relationships. A latter 
noun in connexion with these, instead of taking the singular 
possessive particle indicated by the form, frequently takes 
the corresponding plural one, as in the following ex- 
amples : — 

Kwa nonina bonyana baka-Zebedi ; And the mother of Zebedee's children. 

Unyana wodade bo-Paulusi; Paul's sister's son. 

U-Yamesi umninawe bo-Yohanesi ; James the brother of John. 



308 



REGIMEN OF NOUNS. 



445. When two or more nouns refer to the same antece- 
dent noun, the latter noun or nouns prefix the relative 
pronoun corresponding to the antecedent noun to their pos- 
sessive particles, and the dependency is thus sustained by alL 
(Compare § 517.) As : — 



Ungu-Tixo waba-Yodi nowaba-Heyi- 

deni nabo ; 
Nilumkele igwele laba-Farisi nelaba- 

Sadusi ; 
Ubuninzi bofefe nobobulumko ; 

Unina ka-Yamesi noka-Yosesi; 



He is tbe God of tbe Jews and (that 

§ 518) of tbe Gentiles also. 
Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees- 

and (that) of the Sadducees. 
Abundance of grace and (that) of 

wisdom. 
The mother of James and (that) of 

Joses. 

The relative pronoun is used in this construction, simply to 
allow of the copulative na being used in connexion with the pos- 
sessive form. See § 313. 

1. Occasionally, the relative is used with the first noun, 
as well as with the latter ones. As : — 



Izihlvvele ezamadoda nezamankaza 

na; 
Uyin-Kosi neyezulu neyomhlaba; 



Multitudes (those) of men and (those) 

of women. 
Thou art Lord both (that) of heaven 

and (that) of earth. 

2. But the latter noun or nouns, instead of taking the 
possessive form, frequently assume the conjunctive one. 

As:— 



Umteto wesono nokufa ; 
In-Kosi yezulu nomhlaba ; 
Indawo yokukanya nobungcwaUsa 



The law of sin and death. 
Lord of heaven and earth. 
A place of light and glory. 



446. When one- noun refers to tw r o or more antecedent 
nouns, it is used in the possessive form which corresponds 
to the prefix of the nearest. Thus: — 

Noyise nonina wentombazana ; 



Nangazo imfundiso namasiko obukum- 
kani bezulu ; 



And the father and the mother of the 

maiden. 
And concerning the doctrines and 

laws of the kingdom of heaven. 



447. If the latter of two nouns is intended to express the 
kind of limitation denoted by of in the sense of "belonging 
to," or that denoted by the phrase " round about " it is used 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 



309 



in one of the compound forms which commence with a pos- 
sessive particle, according to §§ 120, 122, 124, 12(5, 128, 
and 130. 

The same rule applies to pronouns, when they are con- 
nected with, or when they represent, the latter noun. See 
examples in § 166. 

448. Nouns denoting time, when used with a kind of ad- 
verbial force, require the relative pronoun before the verb. 
As:— 



Sekumzuzu rcyenzileyo ; 

Kuminyaka mitatu endingapezanga 

ukuyala bonke ; 
Isiqalo sempambano sinjengamanxa 

umntu avulela amanzi ; 
Ayiyi kuba nataru umbla ipindeze- 

layo; 
Ukumkani makasive, mblana sibi- 

zavo ; 



It is sometime since he did it. 

For the space of three years I ceased 
not to warn every one. 

The beginning of strife is as when 
one letteth out water. 

He will not spare in the day of ven- 
geance. 

Let the king hear us, when we call. 



Iii this construction, the relative pronoun is used for the con- 
junction that, according to § 521. 

But the verb, instead of taking the relative pronoun, is 
sometimes used in one of the participles. (Compare § 527) 

As:— 



Sekuminyaka ebubile; 

Ngurnzuzu ongakananina edhlulile 1 



He died some years ago. 

How T long is it since he passed ? 



419. The second comparative form of nouns and pro- 
nouns, when used subjectively, requires the verb in one of 
the participles. Thus : — ■ 



Njengamangelosi esenje njalo ezu- 

lvvini ; 
Njengameva engena esandleni som- 

nxili ; 
Njengayo inja ibuyela emhlanzweni 

wayo; 



Like as the angels do in heaven. 

Like as a thorn goeth up into the hand 

of a drunkard. 
Like as a dog returneth to his vomit. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 



450. Adjectives are followed by nouns and pronouns in 
different forms, according to the sense intended. As : — 



310 



REGIMEN OF PRONOUNS. 



Kuba 'mnandi emxelweni ; 
Ndingewele kuso isouo sami 
Kwoba lula kuwe ; 



It is pleasant to the soul. 
I am pure from my sin. 
It shall be easy for thee. 



1. Mnandi is sometimes followed by a noun or pronoun 
in the simple form. As : — 



Kunmancli so?ia isidenge nxa senz' 
bumenemene ; 



It is pleasant to the fool when he does 
mischief. 



2. Some of the indefinite and numeral adjectives, are 
sometimes followed by nouns and pronouns in the possessive, 
dative, or compound dative forms. As : — 

There arose one of them. 

Let them be two of every sort. 



Kwasuka umnye wabo ; 

Zibe mbini zazo zonke inklobo nga' 

zinnye ; 
Linye emahivgwini ako ; 
Amabini kwamadodana ate ; 
Yanqika esinye sazo ; 
Ababini balaibo ; 
Kabatile ba bo : 



One of thy members. 
Two of his young men. 
He opened one of them. 
Two of them. 
And certain of them. 



451. To express comparison, the noun or pronoun repre- 
senting the object with which a person or thing is compared, 
is used in the dative form. Thus : — 



U-Sara umde kudade wake : 

Lento ibanzi kuleyo ; 
Inivubu inkulu ehan^wini; 



Sarah is tall to her sister : i. e. taller 

than her sister. 
This is wide to that : i. e. wider than. 
The sea-cow is larger than the hog. 



The degree of comparison may be varied by using the 
adverbs kakula or ngakumbi with the adjective; or by using 
the adjective onke with the noun or pronoun. Thus: — 

Ibere inkulu kakulu emfeneni ; 



Ezinye izono zibi ngakumbi kwe- 

zinye ; 
IudhloTU inkulu kuzo zonke innyama- 

kazi; 
Lowo unmcinane kuni nonke ; 



The bear is much larger than the ba- 
boon. 

Some sins are more heinous than o- 
thers. 

The elephant is large to all herbiferous 
animals ; i. e. the largest of all. 

He that is the least of you all. 



REGIMEN OF PRONOUNS. 

452, Demonstrative and relative pronouns are followed, 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 311 

in certain of their usages, by nouns and pronouns of the 
possessive form. See §§ 445 ; 509, 2 ; and 516 — 517. The 
interrogative pronouns, also, are sometimes followed by a 
possessive form, but more generally by the dative-, of being 
used in such circumstances in the sense of from or among. 
For examples, see § 338. 

453. Personal pronouns of the first and second persons 
are sometimes followed by nouns in a possessive form of the 
third person, first species, plural, in which case the con- 
struction is elliptical. Thus : — 

"We of the day. 
Ye of the earth. 
We of Paul's company. 



Tina bemmini ; 

Isina bomlrfaba ; 

Tina basemhlambini ka-Paulusi ; 



In these and similar examples there is an ellipsis of abantu, in 
apposition with the pronouns as in § 417, and it is from this, ac- 
cordingly, and not from the pronouns, that the nouns take their 
form. 

REGIMEN OF VERBS. 

454. Two things have to be considered in regard to the 
regimen of verbs: — 'first, the nature and influence of the 
verb itself; and, secondly, the form of the object used in 
connexion with it. 

On the d iffe r ent hinds of verbs in regard 
to regime n . 

455. Verbs considered simply in reference to their indi- 
vidual signification, are either active or neuter ; in other 
words, they express action or being in one form or another. 
But in the case of active verbs, a distinction arises on 
account of the different relationships which the action sus- 
tains towards the nominative, and according to which they 
are said to be in the active or passive voice, the nominative 
being the agent or actor in the former, and the patient, or 
subject acted upon, in the latter. In the case of verbs of 
the active voice, again, a further distinction arises out of the 
nature of the action itself, according as it denotes that which 
passes on immediately to the object, or that which is confined 



312 ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS 



to the actor, and requires, therefore, some medium of commu- 
nication in order to express the particular relation subsisting 
between it and the object. In regard to this distinction, verbs 
are said to be used transitively in the former case, and 
intransitively in the latter. There are other verbs, also, 
which bear the same relation to the nominative that verbs of 
the passive voice do, yet differ from them in not referring 
to the action as performed by some agent, but to the 
state into which the nominative is brought in consequence 
of its subjection to the action. Verbs of this kind, accor- 
dingly, may be termed neater -passive. With regard to 
neuter verbs, it may be remarked, that they are confined 
simply as such to the Primitive form. On assuming other 
forms, their nature or signification is so far changed, that 
they either become active verbs, or follow their analogies. 
In accordance with the foregoing remarks, verbs may be 
divided into the following different kinds, namely, transi- 
tive, intransitive, passive, neuter-passive, and neuter. The 
succeeding tabular view will show the general application 
of this divison, to the several Forms of the Kafir verb : — 



PRINCIPAL POEMS 

Primitive ( — a) 
Relative ( — ela) 



Causative ( — isa) 



Subjective ( — eka) 
Reciprocal ( — ana) 



Reflective (zi — ) 



GENERAL POKCE AS TO REGIMEN 

Intransitive, Passive, 



Transitive, 
Neuter. 
Transitive, Intransitive, Passive. 

1. Primitive transitive verbs become 
doubly transitive in this form. 

2. Intransitive verbs, when the action 
is performed for an object, become 
transitive. 

3. Neuter verbs become transitive. 
Transitive, Passive. 

1. Primitive transitive verbs become 
doubly transitive in this form. 

2. Intransitive verbs become transitive. 

3. Neuter verbs become active and 
transitive. 

Neuter-passive. 
Intransitive. 

But primitive transitive verbs may be 

used transitively with respect to a 

near object. 

Transitive. 

In this kind of transitive verbs, the 
subject and object are the same in- 
dividual. 



IN REGARD TO REGIMEN. 



313 



PEIMITITE STEM FORMS 

Reduplicated 
Verbs in kola 
Verbs in led a 

Verbs in as a-, aza, esa, 
iza, oza, id a, usa t uza 
Verbs in rdula 
Verbs in uluJca 

DEBrVATIVE STEM FOEMS 

Verbs in eza 

PASSIVE STEM FOEMS 

Reduplicated 
Reciprocal ( — wana) 



GENERAL FOECE AS TO BEGIMEN 

Same as the primitive. 
Neuter-passive. 

Neuter-passive, 

\ Transitive. 

Transitive. 
N-uter-passive. 



Transitive. 



Passive. 

Passive and intransitive. 



456. Some verbs can be used either transitively or intran- 
sitively, with much the same force. As: — 



Kditembile wena ; or, Xclitembile Jcuwe ; 
Wacanda ilizu-e ; or, Wacanda ell- 

ziveni ; 
Uyakonza lamntu ; or, Uyakonza hit- 

lamntu • 
Wawbaleka ; or, TTabaleka buye ; 



In thee bare I trusted. 

He passed through the country. 

He serves that person. 

He fled from him. 



457. Many verbs, also, may be used transitively with re- 
spect to one or more objects, and intransitively with respect 
to another; or doubly intransitive; or transitively with re- 
spect to one object, and doubly intransitive with respect to 
others. Thus : — 



vYapilisa zonke izifo ngelizwi lake ; 



He healed all manner of diseases by his 

word. 
If thou hast stricken thy hand with a 

stranger. 



Ukuba ubambene isandhla nomntu 

wasemzmi ; 

Z&engpleni nfcttrihla ugazomaii'; I Btiy for yourselves food with this 

Money. 

They complained to him about Paul, 
.ill these things spake Jesus unto the 



Bamangala kuye ngaye a-Paulusi ; 
Zonke eziziito Traziteta u-Yesii eba- 
utwini ngeniizekeiiso j 



multitudes in parables. 



Q Q 



314 FORMS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 

On I lie fo rms of nouns and pronouns in depen- 
dency upon the vera. 

THE SIMPLE EOEM. 

458. The use of the simple form in connexion with tran- 
sitive verbs, has been already sufficiently illustrated in §§ 
406—410. 

1. In the same way, that is, as the immediate object or 
accusative, it is often used with, passive verbs. Thus : — 



Uxolelwe fc-ono zako ; 

Ukuba uya kupivva imali ngu- Paulusi j 

Ngokuba yona inikiwe o-Heyideni ; 



Thou art forgiven thy sins. 

That he should be given money by 

Paul. 
For it is given the Gentiles. 
Kwa ngobulumko obupiwe yena; | According to the wisdom given him. 

But in these and similar examples, the noun or pronoun used 
objectively is iufact the remote object of the corresponding active 
form, just as the noun or pronoun used subjectively expresses 
that which is its near one. This will be sufficiently evident, if the 
voice of the verbs in the above propositions be reversed, and the 
agent, where not expressed, supplied. 

2. An immediate object is also sometimes found in con- 
nexion with neuter-passive verbs. As : — 

Buya kunzlahleka ; It shall be lost him. 

In this case there is a transposition of the true subject and ob- 
ject of the verbal action, to which must be added the peculiar force 
of the form. The sense is, " He shall lose it, " hut passively, not 
actively. 

459. Neuter verbs are sometimes followed by the simple 
form. As : — 



Kuti ebusika zilale ubutongo ; 
Kwana imvula izolo ; 
Bema besota umlilo ; 



In the winter they sleep (sleep). 
It rained (rain) yesterday. 
They stood warming themselves at 
the fire. 



For the form of nouns and pronouns after the substantive verb, 
see § 280, 1. 

460. Nouns intended to denote duration of time, or dis- 
tance, are generally used in the simple form. As ; — > 



IN DEPENDENCY UPON THE VERB. 315 



Uze uhambe ke elixesha ; 

Yinina ukuba nibe nimi apa lemmini 

yonke ? 
Ndize ndimkonze yonke imihla yo- 

bomi bami; 
Ukuba uhambe umgama ube 'mnye ; 



Go thy way for this time. 
Why stand ye here all the day ? 

And that I should serve him all the 

days of my life. 
That thou shouldest go one mile. 



POSSESSIVE FOEMS. 



461. The possessive forms require the relative pronoun 
(§ 517) before them, when used in connexion with the sub- 
stantive and other verbs. Thus : — 



Ebengowendhlu ka-Davide ; 

Unyamekela izinto ezizezabantu we- 

naj 
Singaben-Kosi tina; 
Ubungengowako na ? 
Wandinika okwomti : 



He was (one § 518, 1) of the house of 

David. 
Thou savourest the things that be 

(those) of men. 
We are the Lord's. 
Was it not thine own ? 
He gave me (that) of the tree. 



The same rule applies to all the forms of nouns and pro- 
nouns, as well as to other words, which commence with a 
possessive particle. Thus : — 

Kanti ukuba siti, Lolwasebantwini; But if we shall say, It is (that) of 



Ezonkomo zezakuti ; 
Lomntu ungowakwa-Kama ; 
Ubapitizesho luka-Yohanesi lolwa- 
pina? 



Those cattle belong to us. 

That person belongs to Kama's place. 

The baptism of John, whence was it 2 



N. B. The possessive forms do not express all the senses attach- 
ed to the English of "Where this is used jpartitwely, causally, 
or instrumentally, other forms of the noun or pronoun must be 
used. See §§ 469, 471—472, and 474—475. 



DATIVE POEMS. 



462. Verbs denoting motion to or from a person, place, 
or thing, require the dative form after them. As : — 



Bateta leuwo ama-Yodi odwa j 
Akwaqondeka kubo ; 
Bamzisa e-Antiyoki ; 
Baza bangena endhlwini ; 



They spake to the Jews only. 
It was not understandable to them. 
They brought him to Antioch. 
Then they went into the house. 



316 FORMS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 



Waiting for a word from thee. 

He made to grow out of the earth. 

She is loosed from the law of her hus- 
band. 

He went out from the presence of 
God. 

He rested from all his work. 

He hath authority from the chief 
priests. 

Who were sent out to him from Cor- 
nelius. 

463. The Relative form of the verb is used to express the 
former land of motion, where the verb, in another form, 
indicates the opposite kind. As: — 

Ebenyukete e-Yerusaleme j 
Laguquke/a kwin-Kosi ; 



Elinda ilizwi kmve; 

Wahlumisa emhlabeni ; 

Usel' ekululwe emietweni wendoda ; 

Wesuka ebusweni buka-Tixo ; 

Wapumla kuwo wonke umsebenzi 

wake ; 
Unamandhla kubaperisite abakulu ; 

Abatunyiwe kaye ku-Konelhjusl ; 



Ndilianibe/a e-Damakusi ; 
Habujela endaweni yabo ; 
Bamuke/a e-Selusiya; 



He went up to Jerusalem. 
And turned to the Lord. 
As I went to Damascus. 
They returned to their place. 
They departed unto Seleucia. 



Verbs are also used in the same form before adverbs of 
place, under the same circumstances. As : — 



Hambani mhlele kona ; 
"Wabaleke/a kona kuye ; 
Batshonefo ezantsi ; 
Wsibakwpela pandhle bonke : 
Bamtwale/a ngapandhle ; 
Inklango ibavalefc pakati ; 



Get you down thither. 

He ran thither to him. 

They sank to the bottom. 

He put them all out. 

They carried him out. 

The wilderness hath shut them in. 



464. The verbs ya and za are often used before the ob- 
jects of verbs, which are intended to denote the kind of 
motion indicated by to, according as the act of going or 
coming is implied. Thus : — 



Zagoduka ukuya ezweni lakowazo j 

Wehla entabeni way a ebantwini ; 

Wasusa amangelosi amabini aye 

vusa u-Lote ; 
Ndanditunyiwe ukuza kuteta nawe 



kii- 



They went home (going) to their own 

country. 
He came down from, the mount (and 

went) unto the ptople. 
He sent two angels (that they should 

go) to arouse Lot. 
I am sent (to come) to speak unto 

thee. 



IN DEPENDENCY UPON THE VERB. 317 



465. The verb vela, to come from, is generally employed 
to express the kind of motion indicated by from, where the 
verb denotes the contrary motion, or where the construction 
would be otherwise ambiguous. Thus : — ■ 

Kweza abaprofite e-Antiyoki bevela There came prophets from Jerusalem 

e-Yerusaleme j to Antioch. 

Kwalanclela izihlwele zabantu bevela There followed him multitudes of 

e-Galili ; people (coming) from Galilee. 

Ingelosi lisihla Uvela ezulwini j An angel descending (coming) from 

heaven. 

From, in the sense of " distant from," is often expressed by 
the conjunctive form. (Compare also § 485.) Thus : — 

Umgama waso ne-Yerusaleme ; j Its distance from Jerusalem. 

466. The interposition of the substantive and other verbs, 
also, is sometimes necessary to distinguish the land of mo- 
tion intended to be expressed by the dative form. Thus : — 

Usitengile sibe kuye u-Tko kuzo zonke 



Kwa kuye omncinane leude kube kuye 

omkulu ; 
Kude kangakananina ulcusulca en-Nqu- 

shwa ulcuya e-Bini ? 



Thou hast redeemed us to God out 

of every nation. 
Even from the least unto the greatest. 

How far is it from Fort Peddie to 
Graham's Town ? 



467. In, on, or at, a person, place, or thing, is express- 
ed by the dative form. Thus : — 



Tina esitembileyo leu-Kristu ; 

Wahlala ezweni le-Kanane ; 

Kwaye kuhleli indoda etile e-Lisitira ; 

Naniya kumva yena ezinlweni zonke ; 
Wayibeka emhlabeni j 



We who have trusted in Christ. 
He dwelt in the land of Canaan. 
And there dwelt a certain man at Lys- 

tra. 
Him shall ye hear in all things. 
He put it on the ground. 



The Relative form of the verb is sometimes used in this 
construction also. As : — 

Behold I lay in Zion. 

He was born in Bethlehem. 

He is locked up in the house. 



Kekaloku ndiyabeke/a e-Ziyoni ; 
J&bez&lelwe e-Beteleheme ; 
Vtshixelwe endhlwini ; 



468. In or at particular times or seasons, is likewise 
generally expressed by the dative form. As : — 



318 FORMS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 



Sebenzani ehlotyeni, ize ningasweli 'ku- 

tya ebusika ; 
Abantu bayavuya elcwindhla ; 
Botutunjelwa emmini nasebusuku; 



Work in the summer that you may 

not want for food in winter. 
Men rejoice at harvest time. 
They shall be tormented day and night. 



469. The dative form also expresses the partitive sense 
in which of is sometimes used, as well as some of the sen- 
ses attached to with. Thus : — 



Watya Jcumti ; 

TS&sezintalceni zezulu wotabata 

ngasixenxe ; 
Ndiqumbile kuwe ; 
Ufumene ufefe ku-Tixo ; 
Wayeko immini ezitile kwabadi- 

sipile ababe se-Damakusi : 



He ate of the tree. 

Thou shalt take of the fowls of the air 
also by sevens. 

I am angry with thee. 

Thou hast found favour with God. 

And was certain days with the dis- 
ciples which were at Damascus. 



N. B. For the different modes of expressing about, near to, 
against, towards, like as to, like as in, see the examples in §§ 121, 
123, 125, 127, and 166. 



THE LOCATIVE FORM. 



470. With regard to this and its compound forms, it will 
be sufficient to refer to §§ 112, 129, 131, and 166, as their 
use is the same as that of the preceding dative forms, so 
far as their peculiar application allows. 



THE CAUSAL POEM 



471. The causal form is employed with verbs of the pas- 
sive voice, to denote the agent or actor. As : — 



Umhlaba wadalwa ngu- Tixo ; 
Yagxotelwa enklango yidemoni; 



The earth was made by God. 
He was driven of the devil into 
the wilderness. 
Wawelwa kukwoyiJca ; Fear fell upon him. 

472. With other kinds of verbs, this form denotes the 
cause which induced the performance of some action, or the 
existence of some state of being. As : — 



Waxuma hwuyo ; 
Waebideka kukonza okukulu j 

Kanjako akukatali ngumntw t 



She leaped for joy. 
She was cumbered about much ser- 
ving. 
Neither carest thou for any man. 



IN DEPENDENCY UPON THE VERB. 319 



My servant lieth at home, sick of the 

palsy. 
The heart is full of evil. 
And his brethren envied him. 



Isicaka safni silele ngendhlu, sisifo 

sokushwabanisa j 
Inkliziyo izele buboni ; 
"Baza, abakuluwe banomona nguye ; 

473. The above form of nouns and pronouns is peculiar 
in the manner of its formation, being in point of fact the 
simple form after the present, Indicative, of the substantive 
verb. Correctly speaking, therefore, it is the antecedent 
of a correlative proposition, the consequent of which is not 
expressed, but understood. Hence the construction is 
elliptical, and the several meanings, accordingly, which 
may be assigned to this form, are rather inferred from, than 
embodied in, it. These remarks may be illustrated, by 
supplying the understood consequent to the above examples. 
For instance : — . 

The earth was made, it is G-od (tvJio made it). 

He was driven into the wilderness, it is the devil (ivlio 

drave 1dm). 
She leaped, it is joy (ivliicli caused lier to leap). 
She was cumbered, it is much serving (which caused her 

to oecome so). 
The heart is fall, it is evil (which fills it ) . 

INSTBUMENTAL FOBM. 

474. Nouns denoting the means whereby, or the manner 
in which, any action is performed ; the matter of which any 
thing is made, or the name by which any object is called; 
and the like ; are used in the instrumental form. Thus : — 



Ngalo ukolo siyaqonda ukuba imihlaba 
yenziwe jigelizwi lika-Tixo ; 

Sigciniwe ngobubele bake ; 
"Wasidala ngotuli lwomhlaba ; 

Uya kuhamba ngayipina indhlela ? 

Wahamba ngennyawo ; 

Bawa ngobuso ; 

Noko kubanjweneyo ngezandhhi ; 

Baza bambiza ngo* Yohanesi ; 



Through faith we understand that the 
worlds were framed by the word of 
G-od. 

We hare been kept by his merey. 

He formed us of the dust of the 
ground. 

Which way shall you go ? 

He went on foot. 

They fell on their faces. 

Though hand join in hand. 

And they called him, John, 



820 FORMS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 



Indhlu yami yobkwa ngendhlu yofoi' My house shall be called a house of 

tandaza ; prayer. 

Sicela 'nto nina ngeszsicelo ? What do we ask for in this petition I 

Awunqamle ngento emfutshane ; And cut it short. 

IJkuyala bonke ngennyembezi ; To warn every one with tears. 

475. This form also expresses the several senses of about 

or concerning, according to, on account of, in consequence 
of, and the like. Thus : — 



Siteta ngmjimbi into tina j 
Uti nina ngayo ? 
Ngubanina lo niteta nga ye 1 
Ndiya kwenza ngellzwi lako 
Safuduka kona ngendhlala ; 

Siwile ngazo izono zetu ; 



Utabatele 
lwazo ; 



kuwe kwintaka ngohlobo 



"We are speaking about another thing. 
What do you say concerning it ? 
Of whom are you speaking ? 
I will act according to your word. 
We removed thence on account of the 

famine. 
We have fallen in consequence of our 

sins. 
And take unto thee of fowls after 

their kind. 



476. Nouns intended to denote a definite period of time, 
during which something is represented as occurring, are 
used in the instrumental form. Thus : — ■ 



U-Yesu wacanda emasimini ngemmini 

yecawa ; 
Ngokuba rzgo&wbusuku bekumele nga- 

kumi ; 
Ndomdumisa ngamaxeslm onke ; 
Kekaloku ngomnye walomilila wangena 

emkombeni ; 
Ngomnyaka odhlulileyo kwabuba in- 

kwenkwe kulomzi : 



Jesus went on the sabbath day through 

the fields. 
For this night there stood by me. 

I will praise him at all times. 

On one of those days he entered into 

a ship. 
Duriug the past year a boy died on 

this place. 



477. Numeral nouns and adjectives express distribution 
by the instrumental form. As : — 



Uzit&batele kuwe vgasixenxe ; 

Baya kwamkela ngekulu ; 

Yavelisa ukutya ngamanani angama- 

shumi mane ; 
Bafumana imali zabo bonke ngabanye ; 
Uzingenise ngambini ; 
Mayiti yonke imipefumlo ngaminye i- 

lulamele kubo j 



Take them unto thee by seven. 
They shall receive a hundred-fold. 
It brought forth fruit forty-fold. 

They found every man's money. 
Cause them to come in by twos. 
Let every soul be subject to them. 



IN DEPENDENCY UPON THE VERB. 321 



478. To express diversity of number, time, place, &c., 
the noun or adjective is repeated in the instrumental form. 
Thus :—■ 



Wabatuma ngababini ngababini i 
E sat eta naye inrihla ngemihla ; 
Isibalo esingcwele siyasiyala kwindawo 

ngendawo ; 
Ningayi kwkindhlu ngezindhlu ; 
Kekaloku sinezipo ngezipo ; 



He sent them by two and two. 
As she spake to him day by day. 
The Scripture nioveth us in sundry 

places. 
G-o not from house to house. 
Having then different gifts. 



CONJUNCTIVE FOEM. 



479. Motion with a person or thing is expressed by the 
conjunctive form. Thus: — 



TJ-Lote wahamba naye ; 

Wangena nabo etempileni ; 

Ucebano u-Tixo alwenzileyo nobawo 

betu; 
Wabuya nezihlobo zake ; 
Nize nimke nalo ; 
Goduka nazo ezonto ; 



And Lot went with him. 

He entered with them into the temple. 

The covenant which Grod made with 

our fathers. 
He returned with his friends. 
And then depart with it. 
Take home those things. 



480. Hence verbs of the Reciprocal form are usually fol- 
lowed by nouns and pronouns in this form. Thus : — 



Ndahlangana nabo endhleleni ; 
Inkliziyo yami iyanqinana nami ; 
Um-Oya uyasizana nati ebulwelweni 

betu; 
Saxoliswana no-Tlxo ; 
Ungahlukani nomteto kanyoko ; 



I met them in the path. 

My heart beareth me witness. 

The Spirit helpeth our infirmities. 



We were reconciled to Grod. 
Forsake not the law of thy mother. 

481. Verbs, also, which from the nature of their signi- 
fication imply more or less of mutuality, generally require 
the conjunctive form after them. Thus : — 



Ndizenze oteta no-Yehova ; 

Nangona silwileyo naye ; 
Safaniswa ne-Gomora ; 
Walinga ukubandakanya nabo 
Ebedhlala nabantwana ; 



I have taken upon me to speak unto 

the Lord. 
Though we have rebelled against him. 
It was made like unto Gfomorrha. 
He assayed to join himself to them. 
He was playing with the children. 



R R 



322 FORMS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 

ST. E. This form of nouns and pronouns is also used conjunc- 
tionally, in which circumstances it can be employed subjectively 
as well as objectively. See §§ 313 ; 378 ; 403, 2 ; and 483. 



COMPARATIVE FOEMS. 



482. These are adverbial forms, and are sufficiently illus- 
trated in §§ 117 and 118. See also §449. 

483. The latter of two or more nouns or pronouns, all of 
which are alike dependent upon the same verb, are joined 
to the first in the same form, or otherwise used in the con- 
junctive one. Thus : — 



Bati ku-Petrosi nakwabanye abapo- 

sile ; 
Waza u-Faro wateta ku-Mosesi no- 

Arone ; 
!Ngesimbedesha ngomoya nangokvren- 

nyaniso ; 
Wabahlutisa ngenklanzana nezonhwa- 

na eziiigeuinzi ; 
Azingwa kakulu ngama-Roma naze- 

zhti/e izizwe ; 
Ezele lukolo namandlrfa ; 



Tbey said unto Peter and to the rest 

of the apostles. 
Then spake Pharoah to Moses and 

Aaron. 
We ought to worship him in spirit 

and in truth. 
He fed them with a very few loaves 

and fishes. 
They were greatly persecuted by the 

Romans and by other nations. 
Being full of faith and power. 



"For" in dependency upon the verb. 

484. The sense of for, which is commonly expressed in 
other languages by a single form of the noun or pronoun, 
or by a preposition, is expressed in this, in several different 
ways as follow : — 

1. For is often expressed in the verb. The Relative 
form is usually employed for this purpose, though verbs of 
the Primitive form, likewise, occasionally include for, as 
well as other prepositions, in their meaning. Thus : — 



Masitandazefe iremente yonke ; 
U-Kristu wafela aboni ; 
Obemkclelwe izigqito zetu ; 
Owaezinike/a tina ; 
Ezenze/zm izitixwana amadini ; 
Bamenzefa inxeba ; 



Let us pray -for the whole church. 

Christ died-for sinners. 

Who was delivered-for our offences. 

Who gave-himself-for us. 

Which are made sacrifices for idols. 

They made-for him a wouud. 



IN DEPENDENCY UPON THE VERB. 32S 



Nihlanganise/e imihla yokugqibela im- Ye have heaped-together treasure for 

fuyo ; the last days. 

Obelinda ubukumkani buka-Tixo ka- Who also waited-for the kingdom of 

njalo ; God. 

There is a peculiar construction sometimes involved in the use 
of Relative verbs in the passive voice, owing to the relation which 
they sustain to their nominatives. As these denote what consti- 
tutes the true object of the action expressed by the verb, it follows 
that the force of the form will affect them ; or, in other words, that 
the action of the verb will be performed on their behalf. For 
example : — 



Babaselwa umlilo ; 

Inkoino bezivulelwe kwa-Nantsi ; 

Ngennxa yetemba enibekelelwe lona 
ezulwini ; 

Izono zetu bezimelvve kukufaj 
Abantwana abafelwa ngoyise ; 



They were made-for fire : i. e. fire was 

made for them. 
Cattle were opened-for at such a place : 

i. e. the fold was opened for cattle. 
For the hope which ye are laid-up-for 

in heaven : i. e. which is laid up 

for you. 
Our sins were stood-for by death : i. e. 

death was the penalty due for our 

sins. 
Children who are dead-for by their fa- 
thers : i. e. whose fathers are dead/or 

or to them. 

2. Where for is used in the sense of because of in be- 
half of, and the like, the preposition ngennxa is frequently 
employed to express it. As : — 

Siyakudumisa ngennxa yokudalwa 

kwetu ; 
Siyakutandaza ngennxa yenklobo zo- 

nke zabantu; 



We praise thee for our creation. 
We beseech thee for all sorts of men. 



3. Sometimes the possessive form will express for, either 
alone, or preceded by the relative pronoun and substantive 
verb as in § 461, or preceded by the noun into and the 
substantive verb. Thus : — 



Usisizi sezono zetu ; 

Waka itempile yembedesho ka-Tixo ; 

Imbiza yokungcwengisa yeyesilivere ; 



He is the propitiation for our sins. 

He built a temple for the worship of 
God. 

The fining pot is (that of, or) for sil- 
ver. 



324 



REGIMEN OF ADVERBS. 



"Ebengatvento ni wona ? 

Iti ennye ibe ycyako, iti ennyeibe^e- 

yake ; 
Izidhlo ziyinto yesisu ; 



They were (those of, or) for what ? 
Let one be for yourself, and the 

other for him. 
Meats are for the belly. 



4. Some of the other forms of nouns and pronouns, also, 
may occasionally express for. Thus: — 



Kunge kulungile Jculowamntu; 

Bakala kukwoyika ; 

U-Kristu usisigqibelo somteto ngabo 

ubulungisa ; 
Ngokokuba no-Kristu eka weva in- 

klungu ngazo izono ; 
Ukwanana into ngennye into ; 



It had been good for that man. 

They cried out for fear. 

Christ is the end of the law for 

righteousness. 
For Christ also hath once suffered for 

sins. 
To barter one thing for another. 



5. In some instances, the interposition of the substantive 
or other verb will be necessary to denote the sense intended 
by for. As: — 

Kwabalelwa yena ukuba bube bubulu- I It was imputed to him (that it should 



ngisa ; 
Ukolo lwake luyabalwa ukuha kuku- 

lunga ; 
Engolungileyo evela abangalungileyo ; 
Iliso lopindexelwa ngeliso ; 



be, or) for righteousness. 
His faith is counted (to be, or) for 

righteousness. 
The just {suffering-) for the unjust. 
An eye for an eye : lit. An eye shall 

be revenged for with an eye. 



REGIMEN OF ADVERBS. 



485. Kude and kufupi are sometimes followed by nouns 
and pronouns in the dative, or in the conjunctive form. 
Thus : — 



Kube kude kuwe ; 
Sibe sikude nekaya oko ; 
llizwi likufupi kuwe; 
Kuko indawo kufupi nami ; 



That be far from thee. 
We were far from home then. 
The word is nigh thee. 
There is a place near me. 



486. Kunye and ndawonye, also, are sometimes followed 
by nouns and pronouns in the conjunctive form. As : — 

Aba bazingisa ngokutandaza kunye 

■nabafazi nonina ka-Yesu ; 
Ehlanganiswa ndawonye nabo ; 



Uzibeke ezi ndawonye neziya j 



These continued in prayer, with the 

women and the mother of Jesus. 
Being assembled together with them. 
Fut these with those. 



REGIMEN OF ADVERBS. 



325 



487. Adverbs of time, and apo, generally require the rel- 
ative pronoun before a following verb. As : — 



Bamba nxa silele^/o tina ; 
Ungadeli unjoko nxa «mdala ; 

Xa osalibala?/o umyeni ; 

Xeshekweni u-JSyana wesintu oya 

kuhlala esihlalweni ; 
Oko abelungisa amazulu j 
Kukade apela^/o nawo ; 
Sekukade wemka^o ; 
Kuseloko omakulu bafayo ; 
Emvenikweni nikoliweyo ; 
Bekuninina esaka sakubona ulambile ? 
Kgokuba apo siko^/o isidumba j 



They stole him while we slept. 
Despise not thy mother when she ia 

old. 
While the bridegroom tarried. 
"When the Son of man shall sit on the 

throne. 
When he prepared the heavens. 
They also have long been extinct. 
He departed long since. 
Smce the fathers fell asleep. 
After that ye believed. 
When saw we thee hungry ? 
For wheresoever the carcase is. 



In this construction the relative is used for the conjunction that, 
as in § 521, the full expression in such examples being, " the time 
that, " "it is long since that," "it was when that, " &c. 

488. Some of the preceding adverbs, also, are sometimes 
used with a following verb in one of the participles. As : — 



Kube kukade enqwenela ukumbona : 
Apo isondhlwa kona ngexesha ; 



He had long been desirous of seeing 

him. 
Where she is nourished for a time. 



489. Comparison is expressed with adverbs, in the same 
way as with adjectives (§ 451). Thus : — 



Lendhlela ikufupi kuleyo ; 
Ikufupi ngakumbi kokuya sabesiqala 
ukukolwa : 



This path is nearer than that. 
It is nearer than when we first be- 
lieved. 



The same construction is employed, where comparison is 
in some degree implied. As : — 



Omnye wasuka nqangi kwomnye ; 

Ungapambili kuzo zonke izinto ; 
Igama elingapezulu kuwo onke ama- 
gama ; 



One started first to the other : i. e. be- 
fore him. 
i He is before (to) all things. 
A name which is above (to) every 
name. 



490. The demonstrative adverbs, when used before verbs, 
usually require them in one of the participles. As : — 



326 



REGIMEN OF PREPOSITIONS. 



Ngokuba nanko etandaza ; 

Nanga araadoda amabini emi ngakubo 

ngezivato ezimhlope ; 
Namba u-Arone no-Hure Jenani ; 



For behold he prayeth. 

Behold two men stood by them in 

white apparel. 
Behold, Aaron and Hur are with you . 



REGIMEN OF PREPOSITIONS. 



491. Prepositions require nouns and pronouns in the inde- 
finite possessive form. Thus : — 



Ndonifudusela ele kwe-Babilone ; 
Waka ilatare ezantsi kwentaba ; 
Ngapantsi kwennyawo zako ; 
Ndakamba pambi kwake ; 
Woti nina emvenikweni kwoko ? 



I will carry you away beyond Babylon, 
And built an altar under the hill. 
Under thy feet. 
I walked before him. 
I What will you do after that ? 



1. But malungana requires nouns and pronouns in the 
conjunctive form, like the verb for which it is used. As : — 



Ebimi malungana nabo ; 
Safika malungana ne-Kiyosi 



Which stood over against them. 
We came over against Chios. 



2. Ngennxa requires nouns and pronouns in the possses- 
sive form corresponding to its prefix (§ 356, 5). Thus : — 

Ngennxa yobomi bami ; 
Wayenza ngennxa yetu ; 

But a following noun is sometimes used in the same form as 
ngennxa. 



On account of my life. 
He did it for our sakes. 



Thus :- 



Senditandaza kuni ke ngennxa ngezi- 
bele zika-Tixo ; 



I beseech you, by the mercies of 
Grou\ 



492. Some adverbs, and the conjunctions uhiba and olco- 
liuba, take the same forms of the possessive particle after 
prepositions, as nouns and pronouns do according to the 
preceding section. Thus : — ■ 



Uyibeke pezu kwalapa ; 
Emvenikweni kwokuba sigqibile urn- 

sebenzi ; 
Ngennxa yokuba usigcinile ; 



Place it above here. 

After we had finished work. 



Because thou hast kept us. 

493. When two or more nouns, or other words, are de- 
pendent upon the same preposition, the latter are used in 
the conjunctive form, or the preposition is repeated. As: — 



REGIMEN OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



327 



Ngapantsi kwetyala, nobuhlungu, no- 

Icufa ; 
Pezu kwemilambo napezukvremitombo 
yamanzi ; 



Under guilt, pain, and death. 

Upon the rivers and fountains of wa- 
ters. 



REGIMEN OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

494. Hlazi, hlese, §c., are used with the present. Sub- 
junctive, or with the first future, Indicative. As : — 

Who keepeth his garments, lest he 
walk naked. 

Watch ye then, lest he find you sleep- 
ing. 



Ogcinayo ingubo zake, hlazi ahambe 

ze ; 
Lindani ke, hleze anifumane nilele ; 



Uguquke, hlazi ndiya kuza kuwe 

'insinya ; 
Angabi ngosandula ukuguquka, hle- 

zibe uya kuwa ; 



And repent, or else I will come unto 

thee quickly. 
Let him not be a recent convert, lest 

he fall. 



495. Ize and ukuze, and likewise the several forms of uku- 
ba and okokuba, when intended to denote a consequence or 
final end, are used with the present, Subjunctive. As: — 

Be ye not therefore like them. 
That they may be seen of men. 
That he might bring us to God. 
But haying no crime worthy of death. 
The Grospel contains commands that 

all men should repent. 
Than that the spoil should be divided 

with the proud. 
Grod so loved the world, that he gave 

his Son. 



Ize ningaxelisi bona ke ; 
Ukuze babonwe ngabantu ; 
Ukuze asizise ku-Tixo ; 
Engenatyala kodwa lokuba abulawe ; 
Ivangeli inemiyalelo yokokuba inabati 

bonke abantu baguquke ; 
Ngasekubeni kwahlulelwane amaxoba 

nabaneratski ; 
U-Tixo watanda umhlaba ngangokuba 

akupe u-Nyana wake ; 

496. The several forms of ukuba and olcokuba, when em- 
ployed copulatively, or conditionally, are used with the 
Indicative and Potential moods. As :— 



Ukuba uyavuma usel' unamaudhla o- 

kundihlambulula ; 
Ndiyakwazi ukuba wena ungenza 

zonke izinto ; 
Wazuza ubunqina bokuba wngolungi- 

leyo; 
iNokuba baguqukile na, nokuba baqinl- 

site na ; 
Andifaaelekile nokuba ndingayamkela ; 



If thou wilt thou canst make me 

clean. 
I know that thou canst do all things. 

He obtained witness that he wa9 
righteous. 

Whether they have repented, or whe- 
ther they have held fast. 

I am not worthy even to receive it. 



328 



REGIMEN OF CONJUNCTIONS, 



1. Before the Potential mood, the infinitive mood of the 
verb nga, to wish, is sometimes used instead of ukuba. 

As:— 



Watandaza kuye ulcunga angahlala 

naye j 
Ndinalo unqweno Iwokunga ndinge- 

mka, ndibe naye ; 
Bayayenza ngokunga bangabonwa nga- 

bantu : 



He prayed that lie might be with him. 

Haying a desire to depart, and to be 

with him. 
They do them for to be seen of men. 



2, Ukuze is sometimes used with the Potential mood, in 
which case it has an inferential force. As : — 



Ukuze abo basennyameni bangebe 
nako ukukolisa u-Tixo ; 



So then they that are in the flesh 
cannot please God. 

497. The following conjunctions, namely, koko, kuloko, 
kukona, nakuba, nangona, noko, and njengoko, together 
with the different forms of ukuba and okokuba, in their 
causal and comparative applications, are sometimes used 
with the relative pronoun before the Indicative mood. 
Thus :— 



Koko apayo abalulamileyo ufefe; 

Kuloko wazifincayo', 

Kukona anlpayo isonka ; 

Nakuba innqanawa izanyazanyisiweyo 

emanzini ; 
Nangona angayi kuvuha amnike ; 
Noko atyebileyo ; 
Njengoko bababandezelayo ; 
Ekubeni ahleliyo, uhlalele u-Tixo ; 
Ngokuba no-Kristu wasivclayo tina 

inklungu ; 
Njengokuba um-Oya wabanikayo ama- 

ndhla ; 



But he giveth grace unto the lowly. 
But made himself of no reputation. 
Therefore he giveth you bread. 
Although the ship was rolling about 

in the water. 
Though he will not rise and give him. 
Though he be rich. 
As they afflicted them. 
In that he liveth, he liveth unto God. 
Because Christ also suffered for us. 

As the Spirit gave them the power. 



. In this construction, also, the relative pronoun is used for tho 
conjunction that. Compare the radical meaning of the several 
conjunctions with § 521. 

498. The preceding conjunctions, with one or two excep- 
tions, are often used with the participles, instead of with 
the relative pronoun and Indicative mood. Thus : — 



REGIMEN OF INTERJECTIONS. 



329 



Koto umququ eya kutshisa wona ; 
Ivuloko bengakatalanga bona ; 
Nakuba beya kuxakaniswa bonke aba- 

ntu; 
Ufile nakubeni epilile ; 
Ngokuba siya kumbona njengoko e- 

njalo ; 
Ukuba ;iJ/wo-enaukloni ngennxa yeva- 

ngeli ka-Kristu ; 
Ndiyabulela ukuba ebatumile ababa- 

ntu ; 
Ngetuba lokuba esinceda ngofefe lwake; 

Isitembiso sika-Tixo sokokuba eya 

kubaxolela ; 
Ngokuba isono singayi kuba nobukosi 

pezu kwenu ; 
Ngokuba abo balalayo, belala ebusu- 

ku; 
Tfjeugokuba umntu eteta nomhlobo 

wake ; 
K" okokuba edalelive ukugweba uruhla- 



But he will burn up the chaff. 
But they made light of it. 
Although all men shall be offended. 

She is dead while (though) she liveth. 
For we shall see Mm as he is. 

For I am not ashamed of the gospel 
of Christ. 

I am thankful that (because) he has 
sent these people. 

By reason that he helps us by his 
grace. 

The promise of Grod that he will par- 
don them. 

For sin shall not have dominion over 
you. 

For they that sleep, sleep in the night. 

As a man speaketh unto his friend. 

And that he is appointed to judge the 
world. 



REGIMEN OF INTERJECTIONS. 



499. Interjections, if addressed to persons or things, are 
used with nouns in the vocative form. As : — 



A! Kumkani waba-Yodi ; 
Hoi ndhlu yo-Sirayeli ! 
Yo bemi bomhlaba ! 

Wa mntundini ! 



Hail ! King of the Jews. 
O ye house of Israel ! 
Woe to the inhabitants 

of the earth ! 
O thou man! 



S S 



330 ADJECTIVAL USAGES OF NOUNS. 

PAKTICULAE USAGES OP WORDS. 



OF NOUNS. 

ADJECTIVAL USAGES OF NOUNS* 

500. Nouns are used adjectively with other nouns in the 
following different ways : — 

1. By prefixing the relative pronoun, and present, In- 
dicative, of the substantive verb, to the simple form, this 
latter either taking its euphonic letter, or eliding its initial 
vowel. As : — 

Umntti olihlwempu ; A poor person. 

Abantu aialisliumi ; Ten persons. 

Into eyinnyaniso ; A true thing. 

Isitshetshe esibukali ; A sharp knife. 

Imifuno eluhlaza j Green herbs. 

Indawo elusizi ; A hard case. 

Amahashe asibozo ; Eight horses. 

Iminyaka emashumi mane ; Forty years. 

Umntwana osidenge ; A foolish child. 

Amanzi atyuwa j Salt water. 

Uluti olugoso ; A crooked stick. 

2. By prefixing the relative pronoun, and present, In- 
dicative, of the substantive verb, to the conjunctive form. 
Thus :— 



Umntu onobulumko ; 
Abantu a&anamandhla ; 
Ishumi e/mesinye ; 
Amahashe anamendu ; 
Inkosi enobubele ; 
Izilo e-smobutyebi ; 
Usapo o/wnenkloni ; 



A wise person. 
Strong people. 
Eleven. 
Swift horses. 
A merciful chief. 
Fat animals. 
A shy child. 



i. The antecedent noun when referring to persons, is some- 
times omitted in both the preceding usages, as in the case of 
adjectives § 422. Thus :— 



Oyimfama ; 
^tazityebi j 
Onamandhla ; 
^ianeratshi j 



The blind person. 
The rich. 
The strong one. 
The proud. 



ADVERBIAL USAGES OF NOUNS. 331 

Or, the relative pronoun and substantive verb may be used 
indefinitely : as, Tconke okubudoda, every male. 

ii. The relative pronoun, also, is generally omitted before the 
substantive verb, under the same circumstances in which adjec- 
tives suffer the elision of their prefixes. Thus : — 

Aba '^alishumi; These ten. 

Abazalwana be 'fiasixenxe ; Brethren being seven. 

3. The possessive form is sometimes used with the force 
of an adjective. As : — 



Inkliziyo yobudenge ; 
Imibulelo yenlcliziyo ; 
Umhla womgqibelo ; 



A foolish heart. 
Hearty thanks. 
The last day. 



In this way numeral nouns express ordinals. See § 152. 

4. The compound dative form, also, which commences 
with a possessive particle, is sometimes used adjectively. 

As:— 



TJbawo wetu wasezuhvini ; 
Umsebenzi wabo wasebantwini : 



Our heavenly Father. 
Their public service. 



501. Those nouns which include an adjective in sense, 
together with abstract and numeral nouns, are frequently 
used adjectivehj in connexion with the substantive and o- 
ther verbs, independently of any of the above additions or 
changes. Thus : — 

"Bezingcwele ngenkliziyo j j Being pure in heart. 

Yemka ilusizi kakulu ; 

Engebutataka elukolweni ; 

"K-ubuhlungu lona ; 

Ikwa 'nnye in-Kosi ebutyebi ngofefe 

Oyenza lukuni inkliziyo yake ; 

Zibutshaba negama lika-Yesu ; 

Z&lishumi j (Compare § 534) 



He went away (being) very sorrowful. 

Not being weak in faith. 

It is grievous to him. 

It is the same Lord who is rich in grace. 

He that maketh hard his heart. 

Being contrary to the name of Jesus. 

They were ten. 



ADVERBIAL USAGES OF NOUNS. 

502. The instrumental form of abstract nouns is often 
used in an adverbial sense: as, ngofefe, graciously; ngo- 
sizi, sorrowfully; ngolulamo, humbly ; ngobulumko, wisely ; 
ngobudenge, foolishly; &c. 



332 ADVERBIAL USAGES OF ADJECTIVES. 

A few other nouns, also, are employed to express adverbs 
in the same form : as, ngomso, ngomva, ngokuhlwa, §c. 

503. In a few instances, the inflected form of nouns is 
employed adverbially: as, ekohlo, from iltohlo, the left; 
endhle and ezindhle, from indhle, the field. See also § 356, 

504. Some nouns which denote time, or particular periods 
of time, are very commonly used with an adverbial force, 
in which case they usually elide their initial vowels. Thus, 
xa and nxa, maxa and manxa, from ixa and inxa, time ; 
mhlana and nyakana, the diminutive forms of umlila, day, 
and unyalca, year ; are all employed to express when, more 
or less definitely, in the sense of "at the time." In like 
manner, tanci and matanci, from itanci, the beginning; 
express first in order of time. 

505. There are a few nouns, again, which express ad- 
verbial ideas of themselves : as, izolo, yesterday ; ilinya, 
in earnest ; umsinya, soon ; ilizwe, without purpose ; &c. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

506. Ninzi is sometimes used in connexion with into, to 
denote a considerable number. Thus : — 



Enabadisipile bake, nento enninzi ya- 

bantu ; 
Nento enninzi yabazalwana ; 



Being witb bis disciples and a great 

number of people. 
And many of the brethren. 



507. The indefinite adjective nye, when used with a noun 
which denotes some particular period of time, sometimes 
refers it to the preceding or following one : as, izolo elinye, 
the day before yesterday ; ngomso , m?iye, the day after to- 
morrow. Compare also § 347. 

ADVERBIAL USAGES OF ADJECTIVES. 

508. The indefinite form of adjectives is used adverbially 
in the following ways: — 

1. The relative pronoun of the prefix is sometimes used 
in the simple form, but more generally in the instrumental 
form. Thus : — 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



333 



Umzimba oh 



utile nffaso isono 



Yenza ngohutslia lonto ; 

Ufun' ukusipata ngokunjanina ? 



The body (indeed) is dead because of 

sin. 
Do that anew. 
In what manner does he mean to 

treat us ? 



2. In several instances the relative pronoun of the prefix 
is omitted : as, kutsha, newly ; &c. Compare some of the 
adverbs in the list § 340. 

3. Occasionally, the adjective is used in an inflectedform, 
the relative pronoun of the prefix changing into e, like the 
initial vowel of nouns in the same circumstances: as, ekune- 
ne, to the right, from ohmene ; and ekutile, to such a place, 
from okutile, 

OF PRONOUNS. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



509. Demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used simply 
for the sake of rendering the reference to a correlative more 
marked and definite, not unfrequently corresponding in 
force to the definite article the. Thus : — ■ 



Waza wamoyisa umzingi lowo ; 
Waza waya ngapina u- Yudasi lowo ? 
U-Tixo lo ndikonza yena; 
Ungumsebenzi elungileyo nje loa- 
wenzileyo kumi; 



And he overcame the tempter. 
What became of (this) Judas? 
God, (this) whom I serve. 
It is a good work (this) which she 
hath wrought upon me. 



1. In this way they are sometimes used for personal 
pronouns. As : — 



Ku/cwo usukuba esebenza ; 
Umgwebeli wa/owo usukuba ekolwa 
ku-Yesu j 



To him that worketh. 
The justifier of him which believeth, 
in Jesus. 



2. In the constructions noticed §§ 445, 461, and 517, 
they are used in like manner instead of the relative pronoun. 
As:— 



Wondhliwe ngamazwi okolo nafawo 

ezifundo ezihmgileyo ; 
Into u-Yehova ayiyaleleyo jile yo- 

kufcij 



Nourished up in the words of faith 
and (those) of good doctrine. 

The thing which the Lord hath com- 
manded is this of saying. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



"Kuleyo indawo yawo yobubi ; 
Ngokuba lowo wokuqala, ukuba ebe- 
ngenanto ; 



To their own place of misery. 
For if the first had been faultless. 



510. The demonstrative pronoun is sometimes used with 
into, before the conjunction that, when this refers to the 
cause or reason of some event, for the sake of greater pre- 
cision or definiteness. In this construction, the relative 
pronoun often supplies the place of the conjunction that, 
according to § 521. Thus : — 



Kunganina lento ningenalukolo ? 

Kungennxa jema\i,-lento singenisiwe- 

yo; 
Lento wasifudusayo sifele enklango ? 

Siyinto nina tina lento nikalazele tina ? 

Lento ukuba ama-Ngesi abe nokwazi ; 



How is it (this thing) that ye have no 

faith ? 
It is because of the money,-that we are 

brought in. 
That thou hast taken us away to die 

in the wilderness ? 
What are we, that ye murmur against 

us? 
The reason that the English had 

knowledge. 



The noun into is sometimes used without the demonstrative 
pronoun, in this usage. As : — 

Kekaloku into ukuba imrula ingani ; [ The reason that it does not rain. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

511. Personal pronouns sometimes include a reciprocal 
sense. As : — 



Ngokuba ebesiti pakati kwake ; 
Balibamba kwa kubo ke elolizwi; 

Siti senzayo lonto ; 



For she said within herself. 
And they kept that saying with 

themselves. 
We did it ourselves. 



512. Personal pronouns are used redundantly, for the 
purpose of giving greater prominence or distinction to the 
nouns or pronouns which they are made to represent. In 
this usage, the personal pronoun takes the required form 
of dependency, whilst the noun or pronoun usually follows 
in the simple form by apposition. Thus ; — 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



335 



Kwa wvna onke amahashe ka-Faro ; 

Ukuze arigabi li/o irexezakazi ; 

Ube^gekaboni amatuba alo ilizwi la- 
ke ; 

Ngaku?/e ummehvane wako ; 

Ngaye lo unizahvana wami ; 

Sendiqwebile esinye isihlanu pezu 
kwazo ezo ; 

KgokwaJo bona uyatefrwa okukohla- 
leyo; 

Boba nayo eyabo indawo ; 

Bona abakubo abantu ; 

Waenae/e nodade ; 

Enaso enklokweni yake isitsaba se- 
golide ; 



Even (they) all the horses of Pbaroah. 

So tbat she is no adulteress. 

He did not yet see the claims of (it) 

his "word. 
Against (him) thy brother. 
This is (he) my brother. 
I have gained other five above (them) 

those. 
On their part he is evil spoken of. 

They shall have (it) their part. 
And (they) those of the people. 
She had (her) a sister also. 
Having (it) on his head a golden 



1. In some instances where a noun precedes a verb as its 
nominative or accusative, it is repeated in its corresponding 
personal pronoun, in which circumstances the noun may be 
treated after the manner of a nominative absolute. Thus : — 



Umhlaba ubanzi wona ; 

Umzimba wona uyancama ngazo izinto 

zomhlaba ; 
Amandhla ayo ungaqonda wona ; 

Dzizinto siyanibalela zona ; 



(As to) the earth it is wide. 

(As to) the body it is satisfied by the 
things of the earth. 

(As to) its strength you may under- 
stand it. 

(As to) these things -we write them 
unto you. 



2. A personal pronoun is sometimes used redundantly, 
simply to allow of the copulative being expressed. As : — 



Tina singamadoda n&ti ; 
Wati vena wabuba na_ye ; 
Nawo wona ukuba akamani ukuhlala ; 
Kakunia-Gririke n&ivo ; 
Uyinkosi yababantu na&o ; 
Kanti obami ubomi baya kulalela na- 
bo • 



We are men also. 

He also perished. 

And they also if they abide not. 

And to the Greeks also. 

He is the chief of these people also. 

And they will seek my life also. 



3. The personal pronouns are employed in a similar man- 
ner, to express the several mediate forms of dependency, 
as well as the copulative, before the adjective onke. As : — 



336 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



2$awo onke amandhla akulo ; 
Ngennxa ya/co konke ukulunga kwako j 
Yishumayele kubo bonke abantu 3 
]S"anga7/o yonke inkliziyo yako 3 
Pezu kwaso zonke izinto ; 



And all the powers therein. 
On account of all thy goodness. 
Publish it to all people. 
And with all thy heart. 
Above all tilings. 



513. The personal pronouns are sometimes used with a 
strong definitive or demonstrative force, more especially when 
preceded by the particle kwa 3 in its intensitive usage, ac- 
cording to § 581. Thus : — 



Ungu?/e owateta ; 
Lo ukwa nguye u-Kristu ; 
Ibe kwa yiyo into siyivayo ; 
Nguwo ke umteto wake ; 
Jjilo ke ilizwi esilivileyo kuye 3 

Kubo abafumeneyo kwa lo)ia ukolo 

olunqabileyo nati 5 
Kwa zona izinto amangelosi anqwene- 

layo ukuziqonda ; 



He is the same who spoke. 

This is the very Christ. 

Let us mind the same thing. 

And this is his commandment. 

This then is the message which we 
have heard of him. 

To them that have obtained bike pre- 
cious faith with us. 

Which (same) things the angels de- 
sire to look into. 



In this construction the final na of the personal pronouns is 
occasionally retained, though preceded by the euphonic letters 
after the substantive verb. As : — ■ 



Njengokungati nguyena umoni om- 

kulu ; 
TSgMyena 'mntu endiya kumcima en- 

ncwadini yami ; 



As if he were the chief of sinners. 

He is that man whom I will blot out 
of my book. 



514. In connexion with into, the personal pronoun is em 
ployed to express what, as in the following examples '.— 

Akukatyileki into esiya kuba jiyo ; 



!N"ibe ugabaqondayo into iyiyo intando 

yen-Kosi ; 
Ukuba niqonde into lijiyo itemba lo- 

kubiza kwake : 



It doth not yet appear what we shall 

be. 
Be those who understand what the 

will of the Lord is. 
That ye may know what is the hope 

of his calling. 



515. The demonstrative personal pronouns are sometimes 
used with a similar force to that of demonstrative pronouns 
in § 509, and also with a superlative force in the way of 
comparison. Thus: — 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



337 



Owona 'myalelo umkulu emtetweni 

nguwupina ? 
Ndilugcinile olona 'kolo ; 
Eyona 'nto, bubulumko ; 
Eyona 'ndhlela yabalungileyo yeyoku- 

ba benike ekukoblakaleni ; 
Okona kungapezulu, kukuba bekuni- 

kelwa kubo amazwi ka-Tixo ; 
Okona 'kuliauiba kulungileyo kuko ; 



Which is the great commandment in 

the law ? 
I have kept the faith. 
Wisdom is the principal thing. 
The highway of the upright is to de. 

part from evil. 
Chiefly, because that unto them were 

committed the oracles of Grod. 
This is the best way of walking. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

516. The relative pronoun, as the representative of some 
following correlative, is often used with a strong definitive 
force before the possessive form, or before any other form 
that commences with a possessive particle, of the noun or 
pronoun used in connexion with it, the relative assuming 
the required form of dependency, and the correlative taking 
the simple form by apposition. Thus : — 



Sibamba eyako imiteto ; 
Owokuqala umyalelo ; 
Okwomzimba ukudhla ; 
Kgawake amahashe ; 
Zezami izinto ezo ; 
i&wlase-G-alili ilizwe ; 
Jvowako ummelwane ; 
iVirowesixenxe umlila : 



Keeping thy laws. 
The first commandment. 
Food for the body. 
They are his horses . 
Those are my things. 
To the land of Gralilee. 
To thy neighbour. 
On the seventh day. 



When there are two or more nouns or pronouns depen- 
dent upon the same correlative, the relative is used with 
each. As : — 



Food for man and beast. 

Unto the third and fourth generation. 

After the first and second admonition. 



Okwabantu wokwenkomo ukutya ; 
Kude kube sesitatu /zesesme isizuku- 

lwana ; 
Emveni A-zrokwokuqala wokwesibini u- 

kululeka ; 

It is on the principle involved in the above mentioned usage, 
that adjectives sometimes precede their nouns. See §424, 2. A 
similar construction is also observable in such examples as the fol- 
lowing ;— 



T T 



338 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 



XVyipina indawo yokupumla kwami ? 
JTw/elipina icala lomhlaba ? 
Kwelhmwe ngama-Xosa ilizwe ; 



What is the place of my rest ? 
From which side of the earth ? 
In that country which is inhabited by 

the Kafirs. 



517. In like manner, the relative is often used to represent 
some correlative which has been previously announced. 
Thus :— 



Okwokupela ulmmila kwalomntu kubi 

frwokwokuqala ; 
Ndobeta onke amazibulo asezweni, 

kwa rcawabantu rcawenkomo ; 
Asitsho kodwa ukuti, ukwazi kuka- 

Adaine beku??£aH,£'okuka-Tixo j 



The last state of that man is worse 

than (that of) the first. 
I will smite all the first-born in the 

land, both man and beast. 
We do not mean to say, however, that 

Adam's knowledge was equal to 
aod's. 
The third thing is, that we should 

serve him in love. 



Eyesitatu indawo, y<?yokuba simkonze 
ngotando ; 

1. Where the reference is to persons, or where it is suffi- 
ciently obvious from the connexion, the correlative is some- 
times not expressed. As : — ■ 

The second (person) said. 

We are true (men). 

Let our's also maintain good works. 



Wati owesibini ; 

Singrtbemiyaniso ; 

Mabati abetu bamele imisebenzi elu- 

ngileyo ; 
Bbti flbokugqibela babe ngabokuqala ; 
Bati nabatile feabakuti bay a encwabe- 

ni ; 
Illala wena /cwesokunene sanii ; 



The last shall be the first. 

And certain of those which were with 

us went to the sepulchre. 
Sit thou on my right (hand). 



2. The correlative is also referred to indefinitely. As : — 

Concerning (that of) our ways and our 

propensities. 
Do you ever warn them concerning 

(that of) Grod's service ? 

i. This latter construction is sometimes employed adverbially, 
the relative pronoun being generally used in the instrumental form, 
but occasionally in the simple one. As : — 



Kgako okwemikwa nokwezitsalelo ze- 

tu; 
Nika niziyale ngokwenkonzo ka-Tiso 

na? 



Nditi kuni rcgokwennene 
3S"diyateta wgokwabantu ; 
Okwennyaniso ndibonile 



Yerily I say unto you. 

I speak after the manner of men. 

Of a truth I perceive. 



ii. The possessive pronouns when preceded in this construction 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



339 



by the relative pronoun in the instrumental form, supply a sort 
of reciprocal pronoun. As : — 



Xeshekweni u-Petrosi abesatandabuza 

r.^okwako ; 
Zenzeleleni ?7°-okwenu kaloku ; 
Ezinye izono ngokvr&zo ; 
Penje njalo wgokwabo ; 

Tbe noun isiqu is employed to express "self" where the reference is to the 
whole person of man. As : — 

Umntu unazo izinto zimbini esiqwini 
sake ; 



While Peter doubted in himself. 

Manage for yourselves now. 
Some sins in themselves. 
They did so of themselves. 



Iziqu zetUj imipefumlo nemizimba ye- 
tu: 



Man possesses two things in himself. 
Ourselves, our souls and bodies. 



518. In all the above constructions, the relative is used in 
the sense of a demonstrative pronoun, expressing that or 
those. 

1. In the singular number, it sometimes expresses the 
indefinite sense of "one" As: — 



Ngoweshumi elinababini ; 

Ukuba kuko owenu upambukayo kuyo 

innyaniso ; 
Kuko owakuni oya kundingcatsha ; 
Lo ungowakubo ; 
Ungowelipina ilizwe ? 



It is one of the twelve. 

If one of you turn aside from the truth. 

One of you shall betray me. 

This is one of them. 

He is one of what country ? 



This construction sometimes supplies the place of a noun : as, 
oicamazioulo, the first-born ; cwamatumbu, the last-born ; owa- 
semzini, a stranger ; &c. Hence, also, the common elliptical 
forms of friendly address, — icetu for owetu, and let a for noetic ; or 
more fully, wena imgo^etu, — nina 'hangdbetn. 

2. The possessive pronouns often include the sense of'oivn," 
when preceded by the relative in some of the preceding con- 
structions. Thus : — 



Jfwawaso amehlo ; 
Ityala li««bako abantu ; 
Weza A-okwake, baza abake abama- 
mkelanga ; 



In his own eyes. 

The fatdt is in thy own people. 

He came unto his own, and his own 

received hi m not. 



519. The relative pronoun, referring to the correlative 
uma in its conventional usage of denoting parental relation- 



340 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



ship in general, is prefixed to the plural possessive forms of 
the personal pronouns, to express any kind of connexion 
which is predicable of individuals hi common, whether 
family, social, local, or national. In this construction, the 
relative pronoun is used in the dative form when in depen- 
dency upon verbs, and in the compound dative form when 
independency upon nouns or pronouns. Thus: — ■ ■ 



Kuloko ebebuyela /cowabo ; 
Aya kuhlaba umkosi ftowawo j 

Kekaloku beyekiwe, baye frowabo ; 

Batandaza ukuba ang' angemka emi- 

deni ya/rowabo ; 
Hamba uye endhlwini yako, kwa&a&o- 

wenu ; 
Kgexesha lesihlwele saJcovrabo ; 
Ainadoda anyubweyo emhlanibiiii wa- 

/cowabo ; 
Bonke abantu ngabanye bebeva beteta 

ngo/cwa/cowabo ukuteta ; 
Kwa no-Onesimusi, okwa ngotvako- 

wenu ; 



But be returned to bis own people. 

Tbey went to raise an army amongst 
their own countrymen. 

And being let go, tbey went to tbeir 
own company. 

Tbey besought him that he would de- 
part out of their coasts. 

Go home to thy friends. 

In the order of his course. 

Chosen men out of their own company. 

Every man hearing them speak in his 

own language. 
"With Onesimus, who is one of you. 



520. The relative pronoun, referring to the same correla- 
tive as in the preceding section, is likewise used before the 
plural locative forms of the personal pronouns, in which 
case the idea of parental relationship is changed for that of 
parental residence* Thus : — 



Hambani /rokwenu j 

Uye A-okwabo ; 
Intombi zakokwetu ; 



Gro to your home. 

He has gone to his parents' house. 

The girls of our house or family. 



521. The relative pronoun is often used for the conjunc- 
tion that, in its causal and illative applications; as, for 
instance, when employed to connect an effect with a cause, 
an end with the means, an event with time, and the like. 
Thus :— 



Kungalo ukolo esiqonda ukuba 'auaa- 
zwe ebesenziwa j 



It is through faith that we understand 
that the worlds were framed. 



ON THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 



141 



Kungobubuncibi esinabo ubutyebi 

betu ; 
Kwoba ngembaudezelo ezinninzi esiya 

kungena ; 
Kungoko enditeta nabo ngemizeke- 

liso ; 
Kungalo itaru lake owasisindisayo ; 

Kungoko atsko ukuti ; 

Nisazi ukuba kusen-Kosini eniya 

kwamkela umvuzo ; 
Ndisazi ukuba ixeska lise likufupi e- 

ndobeka pantsi lomzimba wami ; 
Kgokuba kukuye esihleli ; 



It is by this craft that we have our 

wealth. 
It will be through much tribulation 

that we shall euter. 
It is therefore that I speak to them 

in parables. 
It is according to his mercy that he 

saved us. 
Wherefore he saith. 
Knowing that of the Lord ye shall 

receive the reward. 
Knowing that shortly I must put off 

this my tabernacle. 
For in him we live. 



In this usage, as well as in all those constructions which 
arise out of it, the relative takes its form from the nomina- 
tive to the verb, as stated in § 176, 1. See also § 180. 

1. But e is sometimes used for a, where the nominative is a 
plural noun or pronoun of the first species. As : — 

Kwoba kangakananina ngakumbi It will be how much more that these 
eboti aba, — bamiliselwe — ; shall be grafFed — . 

2. Before vowel verbs, also, the relative a, where the nominative 
is a noun or pronoun of the first species, singular, or second 
species, plural, coalesces with the verbal prefix, aud then becomes 
lost in the initial vowel of the verbal root. Thus : — 



Nangona enza kade nabo j 
Koko omelezweyo elukolweni ; 
Rfoko endele kwennye ; 



Though he bear long with them. 
But he was strong in faith. 
Though she be married to another. 



OF YEEBS. 



ON THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 



522. The Infinitive mood frequently combines the proper- 
ties of nouns and verbs at one and the same time. Thus : — ■ 



Siyakubulela ukusUondoloza kwako; 

Sizuze amandhla okukula elufefeni na- 

sekumazini u-Kristu ; 
Ukuba sikulule o-Sirayeli ekmilconzeni 

kwabo i 



We thank thee for thy preservation of 
us. 

That we may obtain power to grow in 
grace and in the knowledge of Christ. 

That we have let Israel go from serv- 
ing us. 



U2 



ON THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 



523. In the possessive form, the Infinitive mood often ex- 
presses a kind of adjectival sense, corresponding in fact to 
some of the uses of participles and gerunds in other lan- 
guages. As : — ■ 

Tlie healing or healthful Spirit. 



ITm-Oya wokupilisa ; 
Aruanzi ok use la ; 
Ixesha lokusebenza; 
Indoda yokuqala ; 
Umhla wokugqibela ; 
Ukutya kwokupekwa ; 



Drinking water. 

Working time. 

The first (or beginning) man. 

The last (or finishing) day. 

Pood for to be cooked. 



524. In the inflected dative form, the Infinitive mood 
sometimes refers to the time in which an action or event takes 
place. As :— 



Ekuvumeni kwami ukwenza okuhmgi 

leyo; 
Ekuvukeni ekufeni : 



When I am willing to do good. 



At the resurrection. 

525. In the instrumental form, the Infinitive mood is fre- 
quently employed to express an adverbial sense. Thus : — 



Esiza ngokwalama ; 
Weza ngokuzuma ; 
Zibeke ngokunqamleza 
Zibope ngokuqinisa ; 



Coming suddenly. 
He came abruptly. 
Put them crossways. 
Tie them fast. 



In some cases the simple form is used adverbially, after 
the manner of a nominative absolute. As : — 



Langena ukuqala kwa-Ngqika ; 
Siti ukugqibela sibabekisele ebubeleni 
bako ; 



It first entered at Graika's place. 
Pinally we commend them to thy 
mercy. 



526. In the conjunctive form, the Infinitive mood is some- 
times repeated after some tense or participle of the same 
verb, with an intensitive force, and requires, accordingly, 
such terms as truly, very, fyc, in translation. Thus : — 



Sendibulela nokubulela ; 
W r avuma nohwnma ; 
Eliqonda nokuliqonda ; 
Engenelwe nokungenelwa yidemoni 



I am truly thankful. 

He was very willing. 

Understanding it fully. 

Being (truly) possessed of a deyil. 



IN". B. Ill the use of the Infinitive mood with a noun or pro- 
noun in. the possessive form, according to § 444, attention must 



ON THE PARTICIPLES. 



343 



be paid to tlie distinction winch subsists between the active and 
passive voices. If the infinitive mood be of the active voice, the 
nonn or pronoun will be the subject of the action involved in the 
verb ; if it be of the passive voice, the noun or pronoun will be the 
object of such action. This distinction is especially needful to be 
observed, in the translation of those words which have both a sub- 
jective and objective application of their meaning. The following 
are examples in point : — 



Ukwoyika kwokohlakeleyo kuya ku- 

rufikela ; 
Ukwoyihwa kuka-Yehova kukuqala 
. kwobuluniko ; 

ZJkwazi kuka-Tixo akunamlinganiso ; 
Ukwaziwa kuka-Tixo kubang' ubomi 

obungunapakade ; 



The fear of the wicked shall come 

upon him. 
The fear of the Lord is the beginning 

of wisdom. 
The knowledge of G-od is infinite. 
The knowledge of Grod tendeth to 

eternal life. 



ON THE PARTICIPLES. 

527. Participles are sometimes used in reference to time, 
in which case they acquire an adverbial force. As : — 

Wati kodwa u-Yesu, eqo?idile nje, wa- When Jesus understood it he said 

tsho kubo ; 
Ati kekaloku epuma, afumana indoda 

yase-Kirene ; 
TJ-Harane wafa unyana esemncinane ; 



Zada intsuku zasixenxe, ewubetile urn- 
lambo u-Yehova ; 



When Jesus understood 

unto them. 
And as they came out, they found a 

man of Cyrene. 
Haran died whilst his son was still 

little. 
And seven days were fulfilled, after 

that the Lord had smitten the river. 



528. Participles are also used causally, as, for instance, 
when a reason is assigned for some question or request, a 
cause for some action or event, and the like. In this con- 
struction, the expletive nje is generally added with a kind 
of intensitive force. Thus : — 



Woba ngumfazi wawupina- ? bonke 

bebemzekile nje ; 
Zmngoduse ; ekala emva kwetu nje ; 
Nakubeni sibe singaba siyinkatazo 

kuni, smgabaposile baka-Kristu 

Waza u-Tko wawaqumbela, ebetuka 
isicaka sake nje ; 



Whose wife shall she be- ? for they 
all had her. 

Send her away ; for she crieth after us. 

When we might have been burden- 
some to you, as the apostles of 
Christ. 

But G-od was angry with them,because 
they had reviled his servant. 



3M ON THE TENSES. 

ON THE TENSES. 

529. The several usages of the tenses have already been 
considered, in connexion with their formation. ' It may be 
further observed, however, that those tenses which express 
present, or present-future time, are used in the relation of 
2)ast events, where the occurrence w r as actually present or 
future to the person or persons spoken of, at the time refer- 
red to by the narrator. For example : — 



Bazi ukuba uteta ngabo ; 

Wambuza ukuba leuko into ayibonayo 

na; 
Ebeba eza kusondela ezweni elitile ; 

Bakura ukuba i-Samariya ilamhele 

ilizwi lika-Tixo ; 
Ebeugazi ukuba woteta 'nto nina ; 
Bagweba ukuba u-Paulusi no-Bana- 

basi bonyukela e-Yerusaleme ; 
Weza kubona ukuba angafumana into 

na kuwo ; 



They knew that he spake of them. 

He asked him if there was any thing 
which he saw. 

They deemed that they drew near to 
some country. 

When they heard that Samaria had 
received the word of God. 

He knew not what he should say. 

They determined that Paul and Bar- 
nabas should go up to Jerusalem. 

He came if haply he might find any 
thhi£ thereon. 



530. With regard, also, to the two forms of the present, 
Indicative, it should be observed, that though they express 
the same general sense, yet they are not used promiscuously. 
The second form is employed with the substantive verb, 
with the irregular verbs tl and iiga, with auxiliary verbs, 
and with several of the idiomatic verbs ; as well as with 
verbs in general, when verbials are inserted, or when they 
occur in any construction in which the relative pronoun is 
used, whether this be expressed or not, and frequently, 
also, when they occur in simple interrogative propositions. 
Under other circumstances, the first form is more usually 
employed. 

ON THE IMPERSONAL FORM OF THE VERB. 

531. The Impersonal form (§262) of the verbis often 
employed, where in other languages the personal form 
would be preferred. This is especially the case with verbs 



ON THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 



31, 



in the passive voice. Intransitive, and even neuter verbs, 
are not unfrequently thus used. As : — 

There was cultivated by others. 

Then there was called Adam. 

It was afterwards talked by other 

people also. 
Then it was walked on foot. 
It was gone to them by sick people 

also. 
There was sat down. 
There was slept at such a one's place. 



Kwaye kulinywg ngabanye ; 
Kwand' ukubizwa u-Adame ; 
Xwabuya kwatetwa nangabanye aba- 

ntu ; 
Kwaza fcwahanjwa ngennrawo ; 
Kwayiwa kuzo aangabantu abafavo ; 

Kivahlahva pantsi ke ; 
Kwalalwa kwa-Xantsi: 



ON THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 



532. The present, Indicative, of the substantive verb, is 
often omitted before nouns and pronouns in the simple form, 
its presence being sufficiently indicated by the euphonic 
letters. Thus : — 



Lo Rgumyalelo wokuqala ; 
Lowo ;^?domdisipile ; 
Isikanyiso somzimba /iliso ; 
Fekabanina inncwadi le ? 
Fiyipina into enkulu ? 
Into u-Yekova ayiyaleleyo yile ; 

Utshaba ??,gu-Satane ; 
Abaxumi ;.\gainangelosi ; 



This (is) the first commandment. 
This (is) that disciple. 
The light of the body (is) the eye. 
Whose book (is) this ? 
"Which (is) the great thing ? 
The thing which the Lord hath com- 
manded (is) this. 
The enemy (is) Satan. 
The reapers (are) the angels. 

533. The substantive verb generally precedes nouns and 
pronouns when used in asking, or answering, a question. The 
preceding rule, however, must be borne in mind. Thus : — 

}'into nina uvenzilevo ? , It is what that vou have done ? 



Ukuba siti, Zolwasezuhvini ; 
Agubani okoyo ? Ndimi ; 
Zezikabani ? iTezami ; 
J/;/vinina ukuba abe ngumntu ? 



If we say, It is from heaven. 
It is who that is here ? It is I. 
They are whose ? They are mine. 
It was why that he became man ? 



534. The substantive verb is frequently used before other 
words, and more particularly before numeral adjectives and 
nouns, in a kind of redundant manner, for the purpose of 
defining their connexion with the greater precision. In this 

v v 



16 



ON THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 



construction, the substantive verb is used in the form re- 
quired by the rules in §§ 380—384, or in the present par- 
ticiple. Thus: — 



U-Enoki wahaniba no-Tixo iniinyaka 
2/amakulu matatu ; 

Yabiza zombini inkosi zekulu ; 
Watabata afaaimakuhi niatandatu in- 

nqwelo zokulwa ; 
Ngokuba ungenainandhla okwenza 

nalunye unwele lube mhlope ; 
Ubale amasliumi abe mahlanu ; 
Karri noblala ezihlalweni zibe lishuuri 

linesibini ; 
Ubungelinde iyure ibe 'nnye na 1 
Upina lowo uzelweyo engukunikani 

waba-Yodi ? 
Kwenia ngakubo araadoda emabini 

enengubo ezikazhnlayo ; 
Enrinyaka ilikulu /meshurai 'uye, ubu- 

dala bake ; 
Kdaziboua zikude ; 
Walila epezu kwentaino yake ; 



Enoch walked with God three 

hundred years : lit., years they were 

three hundred. 
He called (they were) two centurions . 
And he took six hundred chariots of 

war. 
Because thou canst not make one hair 

(to be) white. 
And write fifty. 
Ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones. 

Couldest thou not watch one hour ? 
Where is he that is born (being) Xing 

of the Jews? 
There stood by them (being) two men 

(being) with shining garments. 
Being one hundred and ten years old. 

I saw them (being) afar off. 
He wept (being) upon his neck. 



It will be observed that, before nouns, the above construction 
sometimes supplies the place of the relative pronoun, and present, 
Indicative, of the substantive verb, in the usages stated § 500, 
1 and 2. 

535. The substantive verb is sometimes used in connexion 
with a following verb in the conjunctive form of the Infini- 
tive mood, where in many other languages the same idea 
would be ordinarily expressed, by employing the latter verb 
alone in one of the tenses. This usage more especially ob- 
tains, where the power or ability of the agent to perform 
the verbal action, is more or less distinctly referred to. 
Thus : — 



Size nati sibe ??«ko ukututuzela aba- 

nembandezelo ; 
Aicaba wakuyishukumisa ke ; 
Akabanga niiko nokupakamisa amehlo 

ngasezulwini ; 



That we may be able to comfort them 

which are in trouble. 
It could not shake it. 
He would not lift up so much as his 

eyes to heaven. 



ON THE VERB TI. 



34" 



Satjc singenako ukukanyela ; And we cannot deny it. 

Okokuba zibe nako nknteta ilizwi lake That with all boldness they may speak 
ligokukalipa konke ; thy word. 

5S6. The Infinitive mood of the substantive verb, is used 
with adjectives, and likewise with abstract and some other 
nouns, in order to give a substantive character to their 
meaning. As : — 



How large is it 1 lit., How great is 

its greatness ? 
But in singleness of heart. 
On account of the hardness of your 

hearts. 
"VVe can see the strength of this man's 

faith. 



Ingakananina ukuba rikulu kwayo ? 

Kube ngokuba 'nnye kwenkliziyo ; 
Ngennxa yokuba lukuni kwenkliziyo 

zenu ; 
Singabona ukolo lwalendoda, ukuba 

namandhla kwalo ; 

537. The first form of the present, Potential, of the sub- 
stantive verb, is sometimes employed to express the idea of 
probability, in reference to the occurrence of some event, 
or to the representation of some circumstance. In these 
cases, the auxiliary nga is frequently used without the pre- 
fixes, whilst the verbal root often changes its final a into 
i. Thus : — 



Ngaba wofika namhla nje ; 

Isoyika ukuba ngabi u-Paulusi woci- 

twa ngabo ; 
Ungabi uyageza wakutsho ; 
Inani lamagama lingaba lalikulu ; 

Ukuba ngabi baya kuyiputaputela ; 
Ingabi (§ 262, 2) niya kuti nakubuta 
aniabibi ninyotule nennqolowa ; 



Probably he will arrive to-day. 
Fearing lest Paul should have been 

pulled in pieces of them. 
Surely you are mad to speak so. 
The number of the names was about 

a hundred. 
If haply they might feel after liim. 
Lest while ye gather up the tares, ye 

root up also the wheat. 



ON THE VERB TI. 

538. The verb ti sometimes precedes nouns which are 
the characteristic names of persons, places, or things, in 
the sense of the verb, to call. As : — 

Abantu abd-kuliua ngaba-Kristu ; 

Isitade esi-kuihoa yi-Xazaretej 
Into e-kuthva yiheresi ; 



The people who are, it is said, Chris- 
tians : i. e. who are called Christians. 
The city which is called Nazareth. 
The thing which is called heresy. 



318 



ON THE VERB TL 



539. Followed by the interrogative nina, it refers to the 
manner in which, or to the means whereby, the performance 
of some action is accomplished, or the occurrence of some 
circumstance brought about. As : — 



Ute nina ukuyenza ? 
Ndingati nina ukwcnje njalo ? 
Batiwa nina ukuze benze isono esikulu 

kangaka ? 
Ukuba ati yena makatiwe nina uku- 

bizwa ? 
Bafuna ukuba bangati nina ukumba- 

mba? 



How did he make it ? 
How can I do so ? 

By what means were they led to com- 
mit so great a sin ? 
How he would haye him called 1 

They sought how they might tak© 

him ? 



540. In the impersonal form, it is frequently used by 
way of introduction to what follows, in the sense of the 
English phrase, "it came to pass." Thus: — 



Kate ekuqalekeni u-Tixo wadala izulu 

nomhlaba ; 
Kwaye kute kwakuza kusa amangelosi 

andula ukumnxamisa ; 

Kwaza Jcwati akupuma esangweni wa- 
bonwa ngomnye ; 



(It came to pass) in the beginning, Grod 

created the heaven and the earth. 
And (it came to pass) when the mor • 

ning came, then the angels hastened 

him. 
And (it came to pass) when he was 

gone out into the porch, another 

saw him. 



511. The verb ti is used in a sort of redundant manner, 
after verbs of saying, speaking, writing, reading, calling, 
testifying, and the like ; in which usage, it is generally 
found in the Infinitive mood, and in the same voice as the 
verb to which it refers. Thus : — 
Lo u 



Batshono pakati kwabo uhuti 

yindhlilifa ; 
Koko oku kukoko kube kutetiwe 

ngumprofite ukuikva,- ; 
Kjeugokuba kubaliwe emtetweni ka- 

Yehova tikutiwa,- ; 
Anizanga nileseshe ezibalweni na 

uk «//,—? 
Bazi ukuba isiqiti sibiziwe ngokidiwa, 

yi-Melita ; 
Uyanqina kuzo inkliziyo zabo ngoJcuti, 

balusapo luka-Xixo ; 



They said among themselves (to say), 

This is the heir. 
But this is that which was spoken by 

the prophet (to be said),-. 
As it is written in the law of the Lord 

(to be said),- . 
Did ye never read in the scriptures (to 

read),-? 
They knew that the island was called 

Melita, 
He bears witness with their spirits 

that they are the children of Grod. 



ON THE VERB TI. 



349 



54*2. The Infinitive mood of the verb ti, is sometimes em- 
ployed in connexion with the verb nga (to seem), to express 
a seeming resemblance in the way of comparison. In this 
construction the Infinitive prefix is omitted. Thus : — 



Ezizinto zinako okunene ukungati zi- 

bubuluniko ; 
Sibe sinobuso obnngati bobomntu ; 
Ndaza ndeva okungati lilizwi lamanzi 

amaninzi ; 
Kuti ebusika zilale ubutongo ngoku- 

ngati zifile ; 
Anditsbo ngokmigati belike latshaba- 

lala izwi lika-Tiso ; 
Nipumile vjengokungati niza kufuna 

isela na ? 
Asamkele njengokungati silungile ebu- 

sweni bake ; 



Which tilings indeed have a show of 

wisdom. 
It had a face as a man. 
And I heard as it were the voice of 

many waters. 
In the winter they lie dormant, as if 

they were dead. 
Not as though the word of Grod had 

taken none effect. 
Are ye come out, as against a thief ? 



And accepteth us as if we were 
righteous in his sight. 

In these examples the verb ti expresses to say, and the 
literal rendering, accordingly, of the above compound forms 
will be, a seeming to say, that which seems to say, and 
with the relative pronoun in the instrumental or second 
comparative form, in a manner which seems to say. 

The inflected form of the Infinitive mood of the verb ti, is 
sometimes used adverbially in the colloquial style : as, Ndaija e- 
Tcutini ; I went to such a place. 

543. The first form of the present, Potential, of the verb 
ti, sometimes denotes the possibility of some event occur- 
ring, or of some circumstance being as represented. In this 
construction the auxiliary nga is generally used without the 
verbal prefixes. Thus : — 



Ukuba ngati bangafikela e-Fenisi ; 

Kungati umhlaumbi ndiya kwenzela 

isono semi inklaulo ; 
Sisoyika ukuba ngati siya kuwa enkla- 

batini ; 
Ngati ungumshumayeli wotixo basem- 

zini ; 
Onke amadoda ngati ebelishumi elina- 

niabini : 



If by any means they might attain to 
Phenice. 

Peradventure I shall make an atone- 
ment for your sin. 

Fearing lest we should fall into the 
quicksands. 

He seemeth to be a setter forth of 
strange gods. 

And all the men were about twelve, 



350 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

The literal rendering of the verb ti in these examples is, 
it may or can be so. 

IDIOMATIC USAGES OF VERBS. 

544. The following verbs, namely andula, da, fiidula, 
fumana, kova, and mana, are peculiar in their use, being- 
employed only in combination with others, in order to 
modify, or otherwise affect, their meaning. The succeeding 
remarks and examples will be their best illustration. 

ANDTJLA. 

545. This verb refers the action of the one with which it 
is connected to some particular time, which may be either 
present, past, or future, according to the construction. 

1. In the present, Indicative, or in the present participle, 
with the following verb in the Infinitive, it represents the 
verbal action as having recently taken place. Thus : — 



My daughter is even now dead. 

New born babes. 

We started just after sun-rise. 

He found a person lately come from 

Graham's Town. 
Immediately after the tribulation of 

those days. 

2. In the aorist, Indicative, with the following verb in 
the same tense, or in the Infinitive, it implies that the ver- 
bal action took place just after the occurrence of some cir- 
cumstance referred to. As: — 



Intombi yami isanduf ukufa kaloku 

nje; 
Intsana ezisand' ukuzalwa ; 
Sasuka lisancC ukupuma ilanga ; 
Wafumana umntu esandu ukuvela e- 

Eini; 
Busand 1 ukuhla ubunzima balomihla ; 



Ndenje njalo ke, ndandula ukubuya 
Wandula u-Petrosi wapendula ; 
Yandula inkosi yesitiya yati ; 
Zandula ukwazi ke izihlobo zake ; 



I did so, and then returned. 
Thereupon Peter answered. 
Then said the Lord of the vineyard. 
Then understood his friends. 



3. In the imperfect, Indicative, with the following verb 
in the Infinitive, it denotes that the verbal action had re- 
cently taken place, in relation to some past event. As : — 



Bendisandul- ukufika, kwakupuma 
lomteto j 



I had only just arrived, when that 
law was issued. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



351 



4. In the first future, Indicative, or in any tense where 
the future is involved, with the following verb in the pres- 
ent, Subjunctive, or in the Infinitive, it implies that the 
verbal action will take place just after the occurrence of 
some event to which allusion is made. As : — 



Ndandiya kwandula ndixele kubo ; 
Kwakuya kwanduV ukubonakala ; 
Angandula apange nendhlu yake oko 
Nxa amkileyo, anduf ukuncoma ; 
Bandule ukubona u-lNyana wesintu ; 
Luugisa umsebenzi wako pandhle 
wanduV ukwaka indlilu yako ; 



Aud tlien will I profess unto them. 
And then there shall appear. 
And then wall he spoil his house. 
When he is gone, then he boasteth. 
And then shall they see the Son of man. 
Prepare thy work without, and after- 
wards build thine house. 



5. When andula occurs in a negative form, the following 
verb is used in the present, Subjunctive. As : — 



Akandulanga abuye ; 

Aliyi kwandula lipume ilanga 

Unganduli ujike ; 



He did not return just then. 
The sun will not rise just yet. 
Do not turn just yet. 



6. From the preceding examples it will be seen, — 

i. That andula is often used in the contracted form of andu : 

ii. That both andula and andu frequently elide their final 
vowel : 

hi. That the paragogic si is used with the present, Indicative, 
as well as with the present participle. 



546. This verb refers the action of a following one to 
some distance in point of time, which may be either past 
or future. In the former case, it denotes that the action at 
length took place, or, reference is made to some circum- 
stance as occurring until it took place ; and in the latter, it 
denotes that the action will at length take place, or, allu- 
sion is made to some circumstance which is to occur until 
it shall take place. Thus : — 



Yada iminyaka yobuninzi yapela ; 
Wahlala kona ke wada wafa u-Herodi 
Izinto ezhja kuda zibeko ; 

Woda ugqibe ninina ? 



At length the years of plenty ended. 
He dwelt there till the death of Herod. 
Things which shall at length come to 
pass. 
[ Whenever will you finish ? 



352 



IDIOMATIC VERES. 



Yod' ibe 'nto nina le ? 

Ukuba ndingada ndibangenise ngo- 

bukwele ; 
Ude unqumle leyombali ; 
Ukuba ningade nisifumane uinani ? 

Uhlale kona ndide ndikuxelele ; 
Makungabiko 'nmtu uyibekelayo uku- 
da kuse ; 



What will tills come to ? 

If I may at length provoke them 
to emulation. 

Bring that tale to a conclusion. 

Why may you not at length compete 
with us ? 

Be thou there until I bring thee word. 

Let no man leave of it till the mor- 
ning. 



1. The negative verbal root of the present, Subjunctive, is of 
the same form as that of the affirmative. 

2. The final vowel of the verbal root is occasionally elided. 

3. The copulative na is sometimes used with the impersonal 
form of this verb, as in the following examples : — 

And the people stood by Moses from 
the morning unto the evening. 

And in Samaria, and unto the utter- 
most part of the earth. 



Bati abantu bema ku-Mosesi kwakusa 

nakwada kwahlwa ; 
Nase-Samariya, nakude kube sekupe- 

leni kwomhlaba : 



547. This verb is only used in the present and past tenses, 
Indicative. It implies that the actor was, or had been, in 
the habit of performing the action of the following verb, 
which is placed in the present, or one of the past partici- 
ples. Thus: — 



Ndlfudula ndiscnje njalo ; 

Kgokuba nati sibe sifuda singenaku- 

qonda ; 
Obefudula esenza ngobugqwira ; 
Kanjalo nami bendifuda ndihleli, urn- 

teto ungeko ; 
Besifuda singavunywa ukuba sive ili- 

zwi len-lvosi : 



I used to do so. 

For we ourselves also were sometimes 

foohsh. 
Who formerly practised sorcery. 
For I was alive without the law once. 

We were not always permitted to 
hear the word of the Lord. 



1. Fnda is the contracted form oifudula, and frequently occurs. 

2. The present verbal prefixes are sometimes omitted before 
fudula. Thus : — 



Fudula benihamba ngento ezimbi ; 

Nditi fudula besingabantu abangena- 
kwazi : 



You were accustomed to go in offen- 
sive things. 

I say we were once a people without 
knowledge. 



IDIOMxVTIC VERBS. 



353 



FIT3IANA. 



548. This verb represents the action of a following one 
as being performed in vain, or without proper purpose or 
effect. As: — 



Kuko abaninzi Bfoafumma beteta ; 
Niba na isibalo esingcwele sifumana 

sisitsho ukuti- ? 
Waza tvafumana wako umsebenzi 

wetu; 
Niyazi ukungena kwetu kuni, ukuba 

asafumana singene; 



There are many rain talkers. 

Do ye think that the scripture saith 

in rain- ? 
And then our labour be in vain. 

Ye know our entrance in unto you, 
that it was not in vain. 



KOTA. 



549. This verb denotes that the action of the succeeding 
one was completed, just before the occurrence of some event 
referred to. The latter verb is used in the Infinitive. As: — 



Sasuka nxa likova kupuraa ilanga ; 
Ilanga belisakova ukupuma ; 
Sakukova ukufa, songena ebuswcni 
buka-Tixo ; 



"We started just as the sun had risen. 
The sun was just rising. 
Immediately after death, we shall en- 
ter into the presence of God. 



MANA. 

550. This is the Reciprocal form of the verb ma, to 
stand. It denotes that the action of the following verb is 
continuous in its performance. The latter verb is generally 
used in the Infinitive, or in the present participle; but 
sometimes in other forms according to §§ 880 — 384. As: — 

If ye continue in the faith. 
And in continually praying for us. 
Peter continued knocking. 
He did not continue to abstain from 
that tree. 



Ukuba yrimana ukuma elukolweni; 
TX&ngokumana esitandazela ; 
U-Petrosi wamana waqongqota ; 
Akamana ukuzila uniti lowo ; 



Ukuba bamane babonakalise innyaniso 
yabo; 



That they may continually manifest 
their sincerity. 



The final vowel of mana is sometimes elided before a succeeding 
verb in the Infinitive mood. As : — 

Kuloko yamari ukutshoza ; | But she constantly affirmed, 
W W 



354 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



551. The present, Potential, oimana, is sometimes used 
in an elliptical manner, as in the following example : — 

Ngamana usincede ngamaxesha onke j | Continue to help us at all times. 

The force of this construction is of the same nature as that 
noticed in § 368, and ngamana, accordingly, in the above exam- 
ple, may be considered as an elliptical form of speech for wanga 
^ngamana, O that thou wouldst continue ! 

552. The remaining verbs that are used idiomatically, are 
those which have a peculiar application of their meaning, 
when found in combination with others. Of these, the fol- 
lowing are the principal, some of which will be sufficiently 
illustrated by examples alone. 6 ? 

(553.) alekela. . .to add to do. 



Koko besalekela ukukoliswa ngabo ba- 

zenzayo ; 
Waza ivalelcela wazala umninawe wake 

u- Abeli ; 
Koko baJelcelayo ukuhamba ngasemko- 

ndweni wolokolo ; 



But they hare pleasure moreover in 

them that do them. 
And she again bare his brother Abel. 

But who also walk in the steps of that 
faith. 



BUTA...to return. 



554. This verb represents the action of the following one 
as occurring again, or afterwards. Thus : — 

They cried out again. 

It shall return to you again. 



Babuya badanduluka ; 
Luya kubuya lubuyele kuni ; 
Ngokuba u-Tixo angabuya awamilise ; 
Akubuya wenyuka ; 
Koko uburoti bake bubuye bapela ; 
U-Saule, o-kubuye kwatwa ukubizwa 
kwake, ngu-Paulusi; 



For God is able to graft them in again. 
When he was come up again. 
But afterwards his courage failed him. 
Saul, who was afterwards called Paul. 



HLA...to descend. 

555. This verb denotes that the action of the succeeding 
one took place, or would take place, soon or speedily. 
Thus :— 



67 In the Hebrew and other Semitic 
languages, similar idiomatic usages of 
verbs are found in very general use. 
Compare, for instance, the word again 



in Gen. 4, 2 ; 18, 29 ; 30, 31 ; and 
2 Kings 1, 13 ; with the terms em- 
ployed in the Hebrew original. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



355 



Ndohla ndiflke kona ; 
Uinsindo wesidenge uhle waziwe ; 
Wahla wakuruseshwa kwa oko na ? 
Ukuba maningehli nishukunyiswe en- 
gqondweni ; 

556. In the inflected form 
notes that the action or event 
fcstly or openly. As : — 

Wokuvuza ekuhleni ; 

Wayebona einbonisweni kwa sekuhleni; 

Engatandi ukumhlazisa ekuhleni ; 



I shall speedily arrive there. 
A fool's wrath is presently known. 
Was he crucified immediately ? 
That ye be not soon shaken in mind. 

of the Infinitive mood, it de- 
referred to, took place mani- 

He shall reward thee openly. 
He saw in a vision evidently. 
Not willing to make her a public ex- 
ample. 



HLALA...t0 sit. 



557. This verb denotes the action of the following one 
to be constant or regular in its performance, either in pres- 
sent, past, or future time. Thus : — 



Ebehlala emva u-Tixo u-Yise ezintweni 

zonke ; 
Abantu abebehlala besiza ekerikeni j 
Zazihlala zibububi bodwa ; 
Ehlala ehleli nje ukubatandazela j 

Um- Ova wami dkayi kuhlala epikisana 
nomntu ; 



He constantly obeyed God his Father 

in all tilings. 
People who came regularly to church. 
They were only evil continually. 
Ever living to make intercession for 

us. 
My Spirit shall not always strive with 

man. 



Ma, to stand, is sometimes used with a similar application of 
its meaning. As : — 



Icebo lika-Yehova lima limi kude kube 
ngunapakade ; 



The counsel of the Lord standeth for 
ever. 



HLALELA . . . to Wait for. 

558. This verb represents the action of the following one 
as just about to take place. As : — 



Akuhlalela ukuselesha j 

Umlomo wezidenge uhlalel' ububa ; 

Oko abelrtalela ukufa ; 
Xeshekweni u-Paulusi wayehlalet uku- 
vula umlomo - } 



When he was about to sail. 

The mouth of the foolish is near 

destruction. 
Just before his death. 
And when Paid was now about to open 

his mouth. 



356 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



EA...to dip. 

559. This verb implies that the action of the succeeding 
one, was only barely, or occasionally performed. As : — 

Let no man deceive you by any means. 



Kuugabiko 'mntu uka anikohlise ngan- 

dawo ; 
Inkosi yaka yabuza kwizicaka zayo ; 
Nangona nibe nika nakwazi ; 
like wambona na ? 
An'ike nalescsha okwenziweyo ngu-Da- 

vide na ? 
Uya kuka ahlale apa ; 
Musa kuka uyikankanye lonto ; 

Isidalwa singaka sitsho na kosidalileyo 
ukuti- ? 



My lord (just) asked his servants. 

Though ye once knew it. 

Did you ever see him 1 

Have ye not (as much as) read what 

David did ? 
He will continue a short time here. 
You must uot mention that matter at 

all. 
Shall the thing formed say to him that 

formed it- ? 



1. The prothetic yi is omitted in the Imperative, and in the 
plural the affix ni as well, the root being used alone. In the singu- 
lar, the final vowel of this coalesces with the prefix of the following 
verb in the present, Subjunctive, in the diphthongal sound of au, 
except in the case of vowel verbs, which avoid such coalition, in 
consequence of u being changed into w. Thus : — 

.STauhlale apa ; Just sit here. 



Zanisuke kuloudawo ; 
.Kawenze kuhle ; 
ATauyenze lonto j 



Just get up from that place. 
Just wait awhile. 
Just do that thing. 



2. The affirmative verbal prefixes are frequently omitted, and in 
these circumstances the verbal root passes on to the following 
verb, in the usual manner. As : — 



Ngubanina o/rawapikisa intando yake ? 
Ngokuba singebe A-esingaziteti izinto 

esizibonileyo j 
Kesanga siyatandaza ; 
Kwatshiwo kuyo ukuti, k eipumle um- 

zuzwana ; 
il/fl&cndinyotule icetyana esweni lako j 



"Who hath (at all) resisted his will ? 
For we cannot but speak the things 

which we have seen. 
We just seemed to be prayiug. 
It was said unto them, that they 

should rest for a season. 
Let me pull out the mote out of thine 

eye. 



3. The form of the verbal root is variable, lea being sometimes 
used for he, and Jce, again, for ha. In the negative, Jcc is used 
for hi. Thus : — 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



357 



Zuka uziwise pantsi ; 

Obambisele umntu wasemzini woke 

eve j 
Ukuba aka ahlale iniihla etile ; 
Lumka ke uze ungake utete 'nto em- 

ntwini; 



Just cast thyself down. 

He that is surety for a stranger shall 

smart for it. 
That he would tarry certain days. 
See thou say nothing at all to any 

man. 



(560.) 
Ndokolisa ukulazi ityala lenu ; 



ZOLISA...to do well. 



Ndakolisa ukushumayela ivangeli ka- 

Kristu ; 
Kuze kunge asafuna ukukolisa ngaku- 

mbi ukubuza into kuye j 



I will know the uttermost of your 
matter. 

I have fully preached the gospel of 
Christ. 

As though they would inquire some- 
what of him more perfectly. 



There are a few other verbs of the Causative form, which are 
sometimes used in a similar manner to Tcolisa : as, lungisa, to do 
rightly ; zingisa, to do perseveringly ; qinisa, to do sitrely or cer' 
tainly ; &c. 

(561.) PIKDA... to repeat. 



Akupinda ukudanduluka ngezwi eli- 

kulu ; 
Ngokuba singafuni ukupinda ukuzi- 

lungiselela kuni ; 
Walaula nokupinda kwake ukuza ebu- 

ngcwaliseni ; 



When he had cried again with a loud 

voice. 
For we seek not to commend ourselves 

again unto you. 
He foretold also his coming again in 

glory. 






BALA... to remain. 

562, This verb denotes that the action of the following 
one, has, or had, or will have, already taken place, previ- 
ously to, or simultaneously with, the occurrence of some 
other event referred to. The latter verb is generally used in 
one of the participles according to the sense intended. In 
this usage, the verb sola is usually found in a contracted 
state. 

1. The verlal root is used in the form of se, which may be the 
apocopated form of either sala, sele, or sale. But the I of the 
full forms is often restored before the vowel prefixes of the fol- 
lowing verb, 

2. The present prefixes , also, are frequently omitted.) in which 



358 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



circumstances the verbal root passes on as usual to the succeeding 
verb. 



Kuse kuntsuku 'ntatu zihlile ezizinto ; 

Kodwa kaloku nje senitula nezi zonke ; 
Kanti iminyaka yobudala bake ibiseV 

ilikulu; 
Umkombe wause upakati kwolwa- 

ndhle; 
Waselesuka, wabakonza ke ; 
Semka selitshonile ilanga ; 
Baze babe sebelungile ngemmini yesi- 

tatu ; 
tfendiya kwenje njanina ? 
Nitsho ukuti, in-Kosi iyawafuua ; se- 

Zeya kuwatuma ke; 
Xeshekweni ndiya kubandulula benga- 

tyanga, bose besiwa endhleleni ; 
WoseV uti, wakuvula umlomo wayo, 

ufumane imali ; 
Masesisiya kaloku nje kwa se-Betele- 

heme; 
jl/asesiinbulale ke ; 
Ndingase ndipiliswa ke ; 



It is already three days since these 

things happened. 
But now ye also put off all these. 
Though he was already a hundred 

years old. 
The ship was now in the midst of the 

sea. 
And she arose and ministered to them. 
We left after sunset. 
And let them be ready against the 

third day. 
What must I do then ? 
Say, the Lord hath need of them ; and 

straightway he will send them. 
If I send them away fasting, they will 

faint by the way. 
When thou hast opened his mouth, 

thou shalt find a piece of money. 
Let us now go even to Bethlehem. 

Come, let us kill him. 

I shall (immediately) be whole. 



SUE A... to arise. 



563. This verb represents the action of a succeeding one, 
as taking place immediately after some event referred to. 
Thus :— 



KimtJce kwavulekela izulu 5 

Wasuka watsha ke kwa oko umtombo 

wegazi lake ; 
Basuka bamhleka ke j 



And straightway the heavens were 

opened. 
And straightway the fountain of her 

blood was dried up. 
And. they laughed him to scorn. 



WA... to fall. 

564. This verb is used in the first form of the present, 
Indicative, to denote that the action of the succeeding one 
is habitual, or that there exists a constant 'propensity to its 
performance. The latter verb is used in the present or 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



359 



perfect participle, the prefix of which is dropped, and the 
verbal root affixed to wa. Thus : — 



UyawaHleb umntwana j 
Ihashe %awalahlekile ; 
Uyawatsho ; 
Uyawenje njalo ; 



The child is crying again. 
The horse is lost again. 
He is continually saying so. 
He is always doing so. 



ya.,. to go. 

565. This verb is used with much the same force as suka, 
except that the reference to another event is less strongly 
intimated. (Compare § 267) As: — 

And Abraham stretched forth his 



Way a u-Abrahame wolula isandhla sa 

ke; 
Baya batuma ingubo ; 



hand. 
And they sent the coat. 



ZA...to come. 

566. This verb admits of various applications according 
to the construction in which it is used, all involving, how- 
ever, the idea of sequency. 

1. It is frequently employed to connect propositions 
together, sometimes simply in reference to time, but often 
combining with this a stronger or weaker degree of infe- 
rence. In general force it corresponds to the word then, 
but in many cases the copulative and sufficiently expresses 
it. As : — 



Baza bapendula abantu bonke ; 
Lwaza udumo lwake lwapuma ; 
ITyatuma um-Oya wako, zize zenziwe 

ke; 
Kuze kwati ukufa kwafikela abantu 

bonke ; 
Sondelani kuye u-Tixo, woza asondele 

kuni ; 
Bancede ngofefe lwako, laze baku- 

konze ; 
Size nati, nabanye abantu, singeniswe 

kubo ; 
Baze benze nina ? (§ 254, 2) 
Kuze kuhle 'nto nina ke apo ? 



Then answered all the people. 

And his fame went forth. 

Thou sendest forth thy Spirit, they 

are created. 
And so death passed upon all men. 

Draw nigh to God, and he will draw 

nigh to you. 
Help them by thy grace, that (then) 

they may serve thee. 
That so we also, and others, may be 

brought into it. 
What will they do next ? 
What will then take place ? 



&. In the Imperative, and also in the present, Subjunc- 



360 



IDIOMATIC VERBS, 



tive, it is often used to denote entreaty or supplication* In 
these circumstances, — 

i. The root za is used alone for the Imperative mood ; and in 
the singular, its final vowel is elided before the prefix of the fol- 
lowing verb, which, in the case of vowel verbs, is heard first in its 
vowel sound, and afterwards in its consonantal one, like o in § 
28G, 3. Thus:— - 



■Zunipulapule ilizwi lam ; 
Zundityele apo balusa kona ; 

Zuwolule isandhla sako ; 
Zuwenze oku : 



Listen now to my word. 

Tell me now where they feed their 

flocks. 
Come, stretch out your hand. 
Just do this. 



ii. The verbal root of the present, Subjunctive, sometimes elides 
its final vowel before a following verb in the second person, sing- 
ular. The verbal prefixes, also, are occasionally omitted, in which 
case the verbal root generally takes the form of za. Thus : — 

Uz' uti ke ngoko wena, wakupa ama- 

lizo ; 
XJze utete kodwa libe lilizwi ; 
Maaze angaqumbi u-Yeliova, kcncli- 

tete ; 
Zanditi nami ndiye kumbedesha ; 



Niti kanjalo ningakupati, zoningafi 



Therefore when thou doest thine alms. 

But speak the word only. 

Let not the Lord be angry, and I will 

speak. 
That I may come and worship him 

also. 
Neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die. 



iii. The present, Subjunctive, is sometimes used in the imper- 
sonal form of ize (§ 2G2, 2), both in this and the preceding usage. 
Thus :— 



Lumkani ize ningalukulilwa ; 

Ize ningabalandeli ke ; 

Uz' uti kodwa, ize singabadubuli ; 

Soyitomalalisa yona, ize sinigcine ni- 
na; 



Take heed that ye be not deceived. 
Go ye not therefore after them. 
Notwithstanding, lest we should offend 

them. 
We will persuade him, and (then) se« 

cure you. 



3. In the present and past tenses, it sometimes precedes 
the Infinitive mood of other verbs, to denote the verbal ac- 
tion as near or about taking place. As : — 

Unyana wesintu uza kunikelwa e- The son of man is about to be delivered 
zandhleni zabantu : into the hands of men. 



ADJECTIVAL USAGES OF VERBS. 



361 



Akuse-Efese yodwa, kuxa kuba kuyo 

yonke i-Asiya nje j 
Ukugwetywa okuza kubako ; 
Bandibamba etempileni baza kundi- 

bulala ; 
Xeshekweni amadoda omkombe abeza 

kubaleka : 



It is not only at Ephesus, but almost 

throughout all Asia. 
The judgment which is to come. 
They caught me in the temple, and 

went about to kill me. 
As the shipmen were about to flee. 



4. Za is sometimes used in the negative, to denote that 
the action of the following verb has never taken place, or 
that it never is to take place. The latter verb is used in 
the present, Subjunctive. Thus : — 

Kuko izinto zintatu ezingazanga zidi- 

kwe ; 
Akuzanga kubonwe ngento enjalo kwa- 

Sirayeli ; 
Ningezi nifunge ; 
Makungezi kubuye kutyiwe 'kutya 

kuwe ngumntu ; 



There are three things that are nerer 

satisfied. 
It was nerer so seen in Israel. 

Swear not at all. 

Let no man eat fruit of thee hereafter. 



567. The verbs which are employed in immediate connexion 
with the Idiomatic verbs, usually take their form according to the 
rules given in §§ 380 — 384, where it is not otherwise stated. 

568. Hla, siika, and ea, are only treated as vowel verbs, in 
their Idiomatic usages, when employed negatively. 

569. The definitions of the general force of the several Idiomatic 
verbs, have been given in reference to active verbs alone. The 
examples, however, will afford a sufficient illustration of their ap- 
plication to other kinds of verbs, as well as to verbs in general 
when used negatively. 

ADJECTIVAL USAGES OF VERBS. 

570. The present and perfect tenses, Indicative, of verbs, 
when preceded by the relative pronoun, frequently corre- 
spond in general signification to some of the adjectives of 
other languages, and likewise to some of their participles 
when employed with an adjectival application. Thus : — 

Cold water. 

Corruptible seed. 

Thou dumb and deaf spirit. 



Amanzi abandayo ; 

Imbewu ebolayo ; 

Wena moyandini imgatstiyo ungevayo 



X X 



362 



ADVERBIAL USAGES OF VERBS. 



An odious woman. 

An active man. 

A proper manner. 

Dead things. 

An industrious person. 

A strong youth. 

A burning fire. 

Saving grace. 

A living soul. 

With our beloved Barnabas and Paul. 



Inkazana etiyekayo ; 
Indoda ekalipileyo ; 
Indawo efanelekileyo ; 
Izinto ezifileyo ; 
Umntu okuteleyo ; 
Umfana owomeleleyo ; 
Umlilo ovutayo ; 
Ufefe olusindisayo ; 
Umpefumlo ohleliyo ; 
Ndawonye no-Banabasi no-Paulusi a- 
batandiweyo betu ; 

In this construction the antecedent noun, when referring to 
persons, is sometimes understood. (Compare § 428) Thus : — 

Ubacitile abaratshayo; I He hath scattered the proud. 

Tezukwabalungisayonabangalungisiyoi | On the just and on the unjust. 

ADVERBIAL USAGES OF VERBS. 

571. Neuter and neuter-passive verbs are used adverbi- 
ally, by prefixing the instrumental form of the relative 
pronoun, to the impersonal form of the perfect. Indicative. 
Thus :— 



Way a wangena ngokukalipileyo ku- 

Pilati ; 
Xeshekweni uya kulipulapula ngoku- 

kutcleyo ; 
Yenza ngokufanelekileyo ; 



He went in boldly to Pilate. 

If thou wilt diligently hearken to it. 



Act becomingly. 

572. Besides several verbs which include adverbs in their 
signification, there are some others, also, which are fre- 
quently employed with an adverbial force. A few examples 
in connexion with one or two such verbs, will suffice for 
illustration. 



PELA...to end. 



Bahlala beteta kwapela ; 

Indhlela zimbini kupela ; 

Baza bacitakele bete sa, kupela aba- 

posile abangacitwanga ; 
Aningcvvalise kupele; 
Ngubanina olixoki, kupela ngokanye- 

layo u-Yesu ? 



They did nothing else but talk. 

There are only two ways. 

And they were all scattered abroad, 

except the apostles. 
That he may sanctify you wholly. 
Who is a liar, but he that denieth 

Jesus ? 



VERBS OF COMPARISON. 



363 



This verb sometimes expresses an adjectival sense, as in the fol- 
lowing examples : — 



Abapambukisa izindblu zipela \ 
Ukupela kwetemba letu ; 
Ekupela kwonyana wake ; 
'Kupela kwento endiyifunayo ; 
Yanga isel' iza kumginya epela ; 

Indawo yokupela (§ 523) ; 



SA, 



Kwasa asbiya abakweli bamahashe ; 
Kwakungayi kupuma namnye immtu 

kude k use ; 
Wavuka kusasa ; 
Yiba selulungile kwakusa ; 



Who subvert wbole houses. 

Our only bope. 

Being bis only son. 

Tbe only tbing tbat I desire. 

It seemed to be coming to swallow 

bim up whole. 
Tbe last tbing. 

to dawn. 

On the morrow tbey left tbe horsemen. 
No one shall go out until tbe morning. 

He arose early. 

And be ready in tbe morning. 



COMPARISON IN CONNEXION WITH VERBS. 



573. Different forms of the verbs gqita and dhlala, to 
exceed or excel, are very generally employed to express 
comparison, both adjectively and adverbially. Thus : — 



Imali ezigqitileyo emakulwini ama- 

tatu; 
Ngogqitisileyo ngobukulu kumprofite ; 
Ukwoblwayiwa ekubleni kugqitisele u- 

kutandwa ngasese ; 
Ngennyaniso ndigqitisele abantu bonke 

ngobuyilo ; 
Umsindo wesidenge ugqitisele ngobu- 

nzima ezonto zombini ; 
Nibadhlula nganto nina abanye ? 
Ngokuba bebendidhlula ngamandbla ; 
Oprofitesbayo udhlulisele lowo uteta 

ngelwimi ; 



More than three hundred pence. 

He is more than a prophet. 

Open rebuke is better than secret love. 

Surely I am more brutish than any 

man. 
A fool's wrath is heavier than them 

both. 
"What do ye more than others ? 
For they were too strong for me. 
He that prophesieth is greater than 

he that speaketh with tongues. 



574. Comparison is also expressed by the dative form, 
as in the case of adjectives and adverbs, and likewise by 
the preposition pesu. Thus : — 



Silungile kubo yinina ? 
Kulungile ukuba nentwana enncinane-, 
ngasekubeni kube nenzuzo ezinninzi-j 



Are we better than they ? 
It is better to have a little-, than to 
have great revenues-. 



364 



ON THE ADVERBS. 



Ububele bako bulungile pezu kwo- 

bomi; 
Ukupa kutamsanqelekile ngapezu kwo- 

kwamkela ; 



Thy lovingkindness is better than life. 

It is more blessed to give than to re- 
ceive. 



OF PAETICLES. 

575. The particles of the Kafir language are not so nu- 
merous as those of some others. Hence have arisen many 
of the usages of the parts of speech already considered. The 
Idiomatic verbs, especially, supply the place of several of 
the particles of other languages, and will consequently 
require the greater attention, on account of the peculiar 
construction involved in their use. As before observed, 
also, many of the words which have been included among the 
adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are not particles 
strictly speaking, but particular forms of other parts of 
speech. Since they correspond, however, in their accom- 
modated uses, to such kinds of particles in some other lan- 
guages, the classification which has been adopted appears 
desirable, for the sake of convenience and illustration. 

576. The several usages of the verbials, prefixes, affixes, 
and expletives, have been fully exemplified in a preceding 
part. Those of the interrogatives are sufficiently illustrated, 
in connexion with the different parts of speech to which 
they respectively belong. 



ON THE ADVERBS. 



577. Adverbs sometimes prefix the indefinite forms of the 
possessive particle and relative pronoun, for the sake of 
greater emphasis. (Compare § 517, 2, i) Thus: — 



Kauvume okwakvldku nje ; 
Nani niti kwa ngento enjalo, nibona- 
kele ngokwa-pandiAe ; 



Suffer it to be so for the present. 
Even so ye also outwardly appear. 



578. Adverbs can be used adjectively in the following 
ways : — 

1. By prefixing the relative pronoun and present, Indica- 
tive, of the substantive verb. As : — 



ON THE ADVERBS. 



365 



Umntwana emnye onje ; 
Umgwebi wamatyala anjalo ; 
Masiye ezitadeni ezikufupi ; 
Isimilo esi'nxamnye ; 
Ukucapaza okufuti ; 



One such child. 

A judge of such crimes. 

Let us go into the next towns. 

A disorderly state. 

A continual dropping. 



In this usage they sometimes become adverbial again, in the 
same way as adjectives in § 508, 1. Thus : — 



Ngokuba engenguye um-Yodi, lo u- 
nguye rcgoZrapandhle j 



For he is not a Jew, which is one 
outwardly. 



2, By prefixing the possessive particle. As 



Inncwadi yangapanibili 
Ngexesha fakudala; 
Nobusi Jasendhle ; 
Izenzo zasemva ; 



The former treatise. 
In olden time. 
And wild honey. 
The last acts. 



Before adverbs of place, the possessive particles have the same 
force, as when prefixed to the dative form of nouns. Thus : — 



Kwafika umntu wakona j 

Bona baya kunazisa konke okwalapa ; 



There arrived a man of there. 
They shall inform you of every thing 
of here. 



579. Kona is generally used in connexion with apo, upon 
much the same principle as is involved in the use of the 
personal pronoun § 443. Thus : — 

Indawo apo in-Kosi yabilele kona ; 
Uyayitobela apo atanda kona ; 
Kumbula ke apo uwe kona ; 



Ngokuba kulapo umkombe ubuza ku- 
tula umtwalo wawo kona ; 



The place where the Lord had lain. 

He turneth it whithersoever he will. 

Eemember from whence thou art fal- 
len. 

For there the ship was to unlade her 
burden. 



580. Kahulii, kanye, and hunene^ are chiefly used as ad- 
verhs of comparison. Thus: — 



Balila kakulu ; 
Inzima kakulu ; 
Ikohlakele kanye ; 
Ondikoliwe kunene kuye \ 



They wept much. 

It is very heavy. 

It is altogether bad. 

In whom I am well pleased. 



581. Kwa is used before other words, sometimes with 
simply an expletive force, but more generally with an in- 
tensitive or strong definitive force. As :— 



366 



ON THE ADVERBS. 



Zadalelwa kw a yena ; 
Zimi ngaye nokuma kwa izinto zonke ; 
Kwa ku- Adame kwada kwaku-Mosesi ; 
Bengenangcambo kwa kubo ; 
Kwa nomti wobomi ; 
Bayakohlisa kwa nabaqashwa ; 
Ukubala kuni kwa ezizinto ; 
Nanku ondingcatshayo kwa lapa ; 
Ndivela kwa kona ; 

Ukuba iginye umntwana wayo kwa 
esazalwa ; 



They were made (even) for him. 
And by him (even) all things consist. 
(Even) from Adam to Moses. 
Having no root in themselves. 
The tree of life also. 
They deceive the very elect. 
To write the same things to you. 
Lo he that betrayeth me is even here. 
I come from the very place. 
For to devour her child as soon as it 
was born. 



1. Kwa is sometimes inserted between the prefix and root of 
verbs. Thus : — 



Izixakato ezi/cwakohlakeleyo ; 
Ezintsubeni ezikwa zintsha ; 
"Kukwa kukukanuka kwam ; 
Eli ]ikwa lilizwi lokolo esishumayela 
lona; 



Fruits which are likewise corrupt. 
In bottles which are also new. 
That is my desire. 

This is the word of faith which we 
preach. 



2. Nouns and pronouns sometimes take their euphonic letters 
after kwa, irrespectively of the substantive verb. As : — 



Kwa t/inkululeko yemipefumlo yenu; 
Kwa ngabo aya kubiza bona ; 



Even the salvation of your souls. 
Even as many as he shall call. 



582. Pantsi, preceded by the present and past tenses of 
the substantive verb, is used before the Infinitive mood of 
a following verb, to denote the action as having nearly or 
almost taken place. Thus : — 



JJpantsi kundihenda ; 
TSdipants' ukuvuma ; 
TUdaipantsi ukuwa ; 
Ube pantsi ukufa ; 



Almost thou persuadest me. 
I have a good mind to consent. 
I had nearly fallen. 
He was at the point of death. 



583. Umhlaumbi is sometimes used disjunctively ', like the 
conjunction or. Thus : — 



Bonke abantu abaka bashiya indhlu, 
umhlaumbi bashiya abazalwana, um- 
hlaumbi ngodade,- ; 



All who have left house, or (lit., per- 
haps they have left) brethren, or 
(lit., perhaps they are) sisters-. 



584. Xeshekweni, and also xa and nxa, have sometimes 
the force of a conditional particle. As : — ■ 



ON THE ADVERBS. 



367 



XesheJcweni uxelayo ngomlomo wako 
in-Kosi u-Yesu-, uya kusindiswa ; 

Musa ukuzamana nomntu, nxa anga- 
kwenzanga 'nto; 



If thou shalt confess with thy mouth 
the Lord Jesus-, thou shalt be 
saved. 

Strive not with a man, if he have 
done thee no harm. 



585. The prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, re- 
quire no further elucidation than that which they have 
received in previous parts of the grammar. 



APPENDIX. 



A. 

PARSING LESSON. 

[The following extract, taken from an article in the first num- 
ber of the " Isibuto Samavo," and referring to the introduction 
of the Grospel amongst the G-aika tribe of Kafirs by Dr. Yander- 
kemp, will conveniently serve for the illustration of the proper 
mode of parsing Kafir words, in accordance with the preceding 
Grammar.] 

Lite ilizwi lika-Tixo, ukuqala kwalo ukungena ema- 
Xoseni, langena kwa-Ngqika ; lalipetwe ngu-Nyengana, 

Lite; It did so : § 392, perf. Ind. of the irr. v. ti, 3rd. pers. 2nd. 
spec. sing. aff. * in concord with its nominative — 

ilizwi ; the word : n. spec. 2, sing. 

lika-Tixo; of God: poss. f. of u-Tixo, n. spec. 1, sing. — in regi- 
men with ilizwi. 

nkuqala ; beginning : Inf. of the reg. v. qala. Used as nom. abs., 
§ 442 : as to (its) beginning &c. 

kwalo ; its : poss. pro. 3rd. pers. 2nd. spec. sing, representing ili- 
zwi, and concording with ukuqala. 

ukungena ; to enter : Inf. of the reg. v. ngena. 

ema-Xoseni; amongst the Kafirs: 1st. dat. f. of ama-Xosa, n. spec. 
2, plur. The sing, is um-Xosa, § 94, 2. 

langena; it entered: aor. Ind. of ngena, 3rd pers. 2nd. spec. sing. 
aff. referring to ilizwi. 

kwa-Ngqika ; at Gaika's place : loc. f. of u-Ngqiha, n. spec. 1, 
sing. 

lalipetwe; it was conveyed: perf. Ind. of patwa, pass. v. of pat a, 
1st. aug. f. 3rd. pers. 2nd. spec. sing, aff referring to ilizwi. 

ngu-Nyengana ; by Dr. Vanderkemp : caus. f. of u-Nyengana, n. 
spec. 1, sing, after the pass. v. § 471. 



* The abbreviations are for the 
most part sufficiently obvious. The 
following are the more peculiar 

Y Y 



ones : — spec, for species, y. for verb 
or voice, f. for form, aff. or af. for affir- 
mative, neg. for negative, nom. abs. for 



370 



APPENDIX. 



umfo wapesheya kvvohvandhle. Wayete yena, esekwelinye 
ilizwe, weva kusitM T a, Kuko isizwe esingama-Xosa. Wa- 
za wati kekaloku, wanokunga angashumayela ilizwi lika- 
Tixo kvvesosizwe. Wasel' ecela indhlela ke kwabantu 



umfo ; a man : n. spec. 1, sing, in apposition with u-Nyengana. 

wapesheya; of beyond: prep, with poss. par. spec. 1, sing, prefix- 
ed, — in regimen with umfo. 

kwolwandhle ; (of) the sea: indef. poss. f. of ulwandhle, n. spec. 5, 
sing, in regimen with the prep, pesheya. 

Wayete ; He did so : § 392 : cont. f. of waye ete, perf .Ind. of the 
irr. v. ti, 2nd. aug. f. 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. off. in concord 
with its nominative — ■ 

yena ; lie : pers. pro. 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. 

esekwelinye ; being stillin another: dat. f. of indef. adj. elinye, 
1st. class, spec. 2, sing. r. nye, — in concord with ilizwe ; with 
pres. part, of the subs. v. 3rd. pers. 2nd. spec. sing, and verb. 
sa prefixed, the final vowel of the latter being changed into e, 
because of the omission of the verbal root of the former. § 296. 

ilizwe ; country : n. spec. 2, sing. 

weva ; he heard : aor. Ind. of the irr. v. va (§ 289), 3rd. pers. 1st. 
spec. sing. aff. referring to u-Nyengana. 

kusitwa ; it being said : pres. part, of twa, pass. v. of ti, impers. f. 

a ff- 

Kuko ; TJiere is (or exists) : the verb, ho with the impers. f. of the 

pres. Ind. of the subs. v. prefixed, but its verbal root omitted, 
isizwe ; a nation : n. spec. 4, sing. 
esingama-Xosa; which is the Kafir : the noun ama-Xosa used ad- 

jectively in concord with isizwe. § 500, 1. 
Waza wati ; He then became so : aor. Ind. of ti, 3rd. pers. 1st. 

spec. sing. af. preceded by the same form of the verb za in its 

idiomatic usage, § 566, 1. 
kekaloku ; expletive, 
wanokunga ; he teas desirous : Inf. of the irr. v. 

(§ 367) eonj. f. with the aor. Ind. of the subs, v 

pers. 1st. spec. sing, verbal r. omitted, 
angashumayela; (that) he might publish : §529: pres. Pot. of 

the reg. v. shumayela, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. af. 
kwesosizwe ; to that nation : the noun isizwe with the dat. f. of its 

corresponding dem. pro. eso prefixed. §§ 462 and 457. 
Wasel' ecela ; Immediately he asked : pres. part, of reg. v. cela, 

3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. aff. preceded by the 1st. aug. f. of the 



nga, to wish, 
prefixed, 3rd. 



nominative absolute, verb, for verbial, r. 
for root, aor. for aorist tense, aug. for 
augmented, irr. for irregular, reg. 
for regular, cout. for contracted, caus. 



for causative or causal, see. for section, 
part, for participle, and par. for parti' 
cle. For some others see the several 
tables in the second part. 



APPENDIX. 371 

abakulu ; wasuka wawela ulwandhle, wapumela nganeno 
apa. Wati, akufika, wancedwa kakulu ngama-Bulu. Am- 
boleka inkabi zennqwelo, ampa nompako into enkulu. 
Kute kodwa, ukufika kwake kwelimiwe ngama-Xosa ili- 

perf. Ind. of the v. sala, in its idiomatic usage, § 562. WaseV 

cont. f. of waesele, with final vowel elided, 
indhlela ; a path : n. spec. 3, sing. Ace. after the preceding v. 
ke : expletive. 
kwabantu; from the people : 2nd. dat. f. ofabantu, n. spec. 1, plur. 

§§ 462 and 457. 
abakulu ; great : adj. 1st. class, in concord with ahantu. r. kulu. 
wasuka wawela ; he aftericards crossed : aor. Ind. of the reg. v. 

wela, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. off. preceded by the same form 

of the verb suka, in its idiomatic usage, § 563. 
wapumela ; and came out : aor. Ind. of the reg. v. pumela, Eel. f. 

of. puma, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. aff. Eel. f. used here accor- 
ding to § 463. 
nganeno ; on this side, i. e. of the sea : adv. 
apa ; here : adr. — a pleonasm, 
akufika; when he arrived : aor. Subj. of the reg. x.fika, 3rd. pers. 

1st. spec. sing. of. 
wancedwa, he was helped : aor. In&.ofncedwa, pass. v. of the reg. 

v. nceda, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. aff. 
kakulu; greatly, adv. — from the adj. kulu, § 306. 
ngama-Bidu ; by the Dutch : caus. f. of ama-JBulu, after the pass. 

v. n. spec. 2, plur. 
Amboleka; They lent him: aor. Ind. of reg. v. boleka, 3rd. pers. 

2nd. spec. plur. aff. referring to ama-JBulu, and here used doubly 

transitive ; with verbal medial (m) inserted, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. 

sing, representing u-Nyengana, and ace. (or near object) to bo- 
leka. 
inkabi ; oxen : n. spec. 3, plur. Ace. (remote object) to boleka. 
zennqwelo ; of the wagon : poss. f. oiinnqicelo, n. spec. 3, sino-. — in 

regimen with inkabi. Used adjectively, § 500, 3. 
ampa ; and gave him : refer to amboleka above, and substitute pa 

for boleka. 
nompako ; provision also: conj. f. oinrnpaTco, n. spec. 6, sing. The 

prefix na is here used conjunct ionally, and the n. as ace. (remote 

object) to pa. 
into ; something : n. spec. 3, sing, in apposition with nompako. 
enkulu; considerable : the adj. kulu in concord with into. 
Kute ; It was so : perf. Ind. of ti, impers. f. aff. 
kodwa; however: conj. § 358, 2. 

ukufika ; arriving : Inf. oifika. Used as nom. abs. § 442 : in re- 
ference to (his) arriving &c. 
kwake ; his : poss. pro. 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing, representing u- 

JVyengana, and concording with ukufika. 



372 APPENDIX. 

zwe, wafika ngexesha lemfazwe, okuya imi-Dange nama- 
Gqunukwebi ebesilvva nabelungu. Wati, akufika en- 
Nxuba ngasenkla, wahlangana nabantu besaba. Kwatwa, 
kodvva, u-Ngqika akalwi ; akazani nokwazana nabo ba- 
lwayo. Waza kekaloku u-Nyengana wasusa abantu baye 



kweliniiwe ; in that which is inhabited : perf. Ind. of miwa pass. v. 

of the irr. v. ma, 3rd. pers. 2nd. spec. sing, with the rel. pro. <?, 

as representative of ilizwe, prefixed in the dat. f. § 516. 
ngama-Xosa ; by the Kafirs : cans. f. of ama-Xosa after pass. v. 
ngexesha ; during the time : instr, f. of ixesha, n. spec. 2, sing, 
lemfazwe ; of war : poss. f. of infazwe, n. spec. 3, sing, in regimen 

with ngexesha. 
okuya ; when : adv. § 348. 

imi-Dange; a tribe of Kafirs so called: n. spec. 6, plur. 
nama-Gqunukwebi ; conj. f. of ama-G-qunukwebi, a tribe of Kafirs 

so called : n. spec. 2, plur. 
ebesilwa, ivere fighting : imperf. Ind. of the irr. v. Iwa, 3rd. pers. 

2nd. spec. plur. off. cont. f. in concord with its nearer nom. ama- 

Gqunukwebi. § 402. 
nabelungu; with the white people : conj. f. of abelungu, n. spec. 1, 

plur. § 481. 
en-Nxuba ; at the Fish river : dat. f. of in-Nxuba, n. spec. 3, sing. 

§ 467. 
ngasenkla ; towards the vpper part : adv. 
wahlangana ; he met : aor. Ind. of the reg. v. hlangana, 3rd. pers. 

1st. spec. sing. afif. referring to u-Nyengana. 
nabantu ; with people : conj. f. of abantu. § 480. 
besaba ; flying : pres. part, of reg. v. saba, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. 

plur. off. in concord with nabantu. 
Kwatwa ; It was said : aor. Ind. of twa, pass. v. of ti, impers. f . aff. 
akalwi ; he does not fight : pres. Ind. of Iwa, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. 

neg. in concord with its nom. u-Ngqika. 
akazani ; he has no connexion : pres. Ind. of the irr. v. aza- 

na, Eecip. f. of azi, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. neg. referring to u- 

Nqqika. — nokwazana, Inf. oiazana, conj. f. used intensitively. 

§ 526. 
nabo ; with those : conj . f . of abo, dern. pro. spec. 1, plur. in con- 
cord with abantu understood, 
balwayo ; ivho fight : pres. Ind. of lica, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. plur. 

aff. rel. a omitted according to § 434, 3, and nabo, therefore, 

must be considered as including both correlative and nominative, 

— those-who. 
wasusa ; he sent : aor. Ind. of the reg. v. susa, stem f. of suka, 

3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. aff. in concord with its nom. u-Nye- 

ngana. 
baye ; that they should go ; pres. Subj. of the irr. v. ya : 3rd. pers. 






APPENDIX. 373 

kucela indhlela kwa kuye u-Ngqika lowo : ngokuba ebe- 
nga angaya kuhlala kuma-Ngqika. Wati u-Ngqika wa« 
susa umntu aye kubabonisa indhlela. Bada bafika emziui 
wake e-Tyume, o-Nyengana abo. 

Bati kekaloku, bakufika, babona i-Bulu ebelihleli ema- 



lst. spec. plur. aff. referring to dbantu. 
kucela ; to ask : Inf. of cela, with initial vowel elided. 
kwa ; even : adv. used expletively, § 581. 
kuye ; from him : § 462 : dat. f. of yena, pers. pro. 3rd. pers. 1st. 

spec. sing, representative of u-Ngqika according to § 512. 
lowo ; this : dem. pro. 1st. spec. sing, in concord with u-Ngqilca. 

§ 509. 
ngokuba; because; conj. § 358, 9. 
ebenga ; he wished : imperf. part, of nga, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec, sing, 

aff. cont. f. Participle used according to § 4<98-Ngokuba ebenga ; 

literally, through being having been wishing, 
angaya; that he might go : § 529 : pres. Pot. of ya, 3rd. pers. 1st. 

spec. sing. aff. 
kuhlala ; to dwell : Inf. of reg. v. Mala, with initial vowel elided. 
kuma-Ngqika ; with the Gaikas ; dat. f. of ama-Ngqika. § 469. 
umntu ; a person : n. spec. 1, sing. Ace. to wasusa. 
aye ; that he should go : pres. Subj. of ya, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. 

off. referring to umntu. 
kubabonisa ; to show them : Inf. of the reg. v. bonisa, Caus. f. of 

bona ; with verbal medial ba (referring to dbantu) 3rd. pers. 1st. 

spec. plur. inserted as its ace. or near object. 
Bada bafika ; At length they arrived : aor. Ind. oifika, 3rd. pers. 

1st. spec. plur. aff. preceded by the same form of the idiomatic 

v. da, § 546. In concord with the nom. o-Nyengana. 
emziui ; at (his) place : dat. f. of umzi, n. spec. 6. sing. § 467. 
wake; his : poss. pro. 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing, representing u- 

Nyengana, and concording with emzini. 
e-Tyume ; at the Tyume, (a river so called) : dat. f. of i-Tyume, n. 

spec. 2, sing. 
o-Nyengana; Dr. Vanderkemp and his party : n. spec. 1, plur. 

§ 93, remark under Species 1. 
abo ; those : dem. pro. spec. 1, plur. in concord with o-Nyengana. 

§ 509. 
babona ; they saiv : aor. Ind. of the reg. v. bona, 3rd. pers. 1st. 

spec. plur. aff. 
i-Bulu ; a Dutchman : n. spec. 2, sing. Ace. to babona. Derived 

from the Dutch boer, a farmer, 
ebelihleli ; who was dwelling : pluperf. Ind. of hlala, cont. f. 3rd. 

pers. 2nd. spec. sing, aff with its nom. the rel. pro. e prefixed, 

concording with its correlative i-Bulu. 
walenza ; he made him : aor. Ind. of the irr. y. enza, 3rd. pers. 1st, 



374 APPENDIX. 

Xoseni. Wati u-Ngqika walenza ikumsha lokubuzisa ku- 
Nyengana into abazela zona. Waxela u-Nyengana, wati, 
Siza kunifttnclisa izwi lika-Tixo, nize niyazi indhlela yake, 
nizuze innyweba engunapakade emveni kwokufa. Kwa- 
twa, Nisuswa zinkosi zama-Ngesi na ? Bati, Hai ; ngu- 



spec. sing. off. with verbal medial li (§ 288), 3rd. pers. 2nd. spec. 

sing, inserted as its ace. or near object, and representative of 

i-Bulu. 
ikumsha ; interpreter : n. spec. 2, sing. Ace. or remote object of 

preceding verb. (r. Tcumsha.) 
lokubuzisa ; to inquire by questioning : Inf. of the reg. v. buzisa, 

Caus. f. of buza, to ask : poss. f. in regimen with ikumsha. 
into ; the things : n. spec. 3, plur. Ace. to buzisa. 
abazela ; (as to) 'which they ivere come for : § 443 : aor. Ind. of the 

reg. v. zela, Rel. f. of za, to come, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. plur. off. 

with the rel. pro. a prefixed, used objectively, and concording, 

therefore, with the nominative according to sec. 176, 1. 
zona ; them : pers. pro. 3rd. pers. 3rd. spec. plur. referring to into, 

and ace. to the preceding verb. 
"Waxela ; He told : aor. Ind. of the reg. v. xela, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. 

sing. off. referring to u-Nyengana. 
Siza ; We are coming : pres. Ind. of za, 1st. pers. plur. affi. § 403. 
kunifundisa ; to teach you : Inf. of the reg. v. fandisa, Caus. f. of 

funda, to learn ; with verbal medial ni, 2nd. pers. plur. inserted 

as its ace. or near object, sec. 407. 
nize niyazi ; that you may hnow : pres. Subj. of the irr. v. azi (sec. 

254), 2nd. pers. plur. off. with verbal medial yi, 3rd. pers. 3rd. 

spec. sing, inserted, and representing the ace. indhlela : preceded 

by the same form of the v. za, in its idiomatic usage, according 

to sec. 566, 1. 
nizuze; and obtain: sees. 379 and 383 : pres. Subj. of the reg. v. 

zuza, 2nd. pers. plur. aff. 
innyweba ; happiness : n. spec. 3, sing. Ace. to preceding v. 
engunapakade ; everlasting : the adv. napalcade used as a n. by 

taking the u prefix, 1st. spec. sing, and then adjectively accor- 
ding to sec. 500, 1. 
emveni ; after : prep. sec. 356, 1. 
kwokufa ; death : indef. poss. f. of uhufa, n. spec. 8 : in regimen 

with emveni. (r.fa.) 
Nisuswa; Are you sent-, pres. Ind. of susiva, pass. v. ofsusa, 2nd. 

pers. plur. off. 
zinkosi ; by the chiefs : caus. f. of inJcosi, n. spec. 3, plur. after 

pass. v. 
zama-jSTgesi ; of the English: poss. f. of ama-Ngesi, n. spec. 2, plur. 

in regimen with zinkosi. Derived from English. 
na : sign of interrogation. 



APPENDIX. 375 

Tixo obengenisa inkumbulo ezinkliziyvveni zetu zokunga 
singeza kuni, sinivise inclaba zasezulwini. 

Kwaba njalo ke : u-Ngqika akabanga nakubanika 'zwi. 
Kwati, ngokuba bekunxa azeka umfazi wesitatu, kwali- 



Hai ; No : adv. 

ngu-Tixo ; it is God: the n. u-Tixo, with its euphonic letters pre- 
fixed, after the subs. v. this being omitted according to sec. 532. 

obengenisa ; who caused to enter : imperf. Ind. cont. f. of the reg. v. 
ngenisa, Cans. f. of ngena, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing. off. with its 
nom. the rel. pro. o prefixed, in concord with its correlative u- 
Tixo. 

inkumbulo ; tlie thoughts : n. spec. 3, plur. r. kumbula, ace. to pre- 
ceding verb. 

ezinkliziyweni ; in (our) hearts : 1st. dat. f. of inJcliziyo, n. spec. 3, 
plur. sec. 467. 

zetu ; our : poss. pro. 1st. pers. plur. in concord with ezinkliziyweni. 

zokunga; of wishing : Inf. of nga, poss. f. in regimen with inku- 
mbulo. sec. 496, 1. 

singeza; ice may come : pres. Pot. of the verb za (sec. 289), 1st. 
pers. plur. off. 

kuni; to you: dat. f. oinina, pers. pro. 2nd. pers. plur. sec. 462. 

sinivise ; and cause you to hear : pres. Subj. of the reg. v. visa, Caus. 
f. of va, lst.pers. plur. with verbal medial ni inserted as ace. and 
representing the near object. 

indaba ; news : n. spec. 3, plur. ace. or remote object to the prece- 
ding verb. 

zasezulwini ; of heaven: 1st. comp. dat. f. of izulu, n. spec. 2, sing, 
in regimen with indaba (sec. 447), and used adjectively in 
accordance with sec. 500, 4. 

Kwaba ; It was : aor. Ind. of subs. v. impers. f. ajf. njalo ; so : adv. 

akabanga ; he teas not : perf. Ind. of subs. v. 3rd. pers. 1st. spec, 
sing. neg. in concord with its nom. u-Xgqika. 

nakubanika; with giving them: Inf. of reg. v. niJca, conj.f. (sec. 
315) with verbal medial (ha) inserted, representing o-Nyengana, 
as its ace. (near object). 

'zwi; a word: for izwi or ilizwi by elision, acc.( remote object) to 
preceding verb. 

bekunxa ; it teas when : the adv. nxa (sec. 504) with the imperf. 
Ind. of the subs. v. prefixed, impers. f. off. 

azeka ; he married: lit. at the time that he is marrying : pres. Ind. 
of reg. v. zelca, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing, with rel. pro. prefixed 
according to sec. 487. 

umfazi ; a wife : n. spec. 1, sing. Ace. to preceding v. 

wesitatu; of three (third) n. spec. 4, in regimen with umfazi, and 
used adjectively, according to sec. 500, 3. 

kwalibaleka ; there became delayed : aor. Ind. of the reg. v. Jibaleka, 



876 APPENDIX. 

baleka kakulu. Wahlala ke u-Nyengana elinda izwi len~ 
kosi zada zazinninzi intsuku. Bati abantu ababe naye, 
banesitukutezi esikulu, ngokuba kube kunga baya kubu- 
lawa ngokutyolwa ngabantu abakohlakeleyo. Kute kodwa, 
emveni kwokuba bebese bedinivve kukulityaziswa kanga- 



Subj. f. of libala, to delay, impers. f. af 
Wahlala; He continued : (sec. 557) aor. Ind. of reg. v. Mala. 3rd. 

pers. 1st. spec. sing. af. in concord with its nom. u-Nyengana. 
elinda ; waiting for : pres. part, of reg. v. linda, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. 

sin £' ¥' . 
zada zazinninzi ; till at length tliey became many : the adj. ezinninzi 

1st. class, in concord with intsuku, r. ninzi, with the aor. Ind. of 

subs. v. 3rd. pers. 5th. spec. plnr. prefixed, and preceded by the 

same form of the idiomatic verb da, in concord with its nomina- 
tive — 
intsuku ; days : n. spec. 5, plur. The sing, is u-suku, the s being 

changed into ts after the in prefix, (sec. 45, 2) 
ababe; who ivere : perf. Ind. of subs. v. 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. plur. 

(iff. with its nom. the rel. pro. prefixed, in concord with abantu. 
naye ; ivith him : conj. f. of yena, pers. pro. 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. 

sing, 
banesitukutezi; they were with anxiety: conj. f. of isitukutezi, n. 

spec. 4, sing, with aor. Ind. of subs. v. 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. plur. 

of. prefixed, 
kube kunga ; it seemed : imperf. part. (sec. 498) of the irr.v. nga, 

to seem, impers. f. qff. 
baya kubulawa ; they shall be killed : 1st. fut. Ind. of bulawa, (for 

bulalwa, sec. 44) pass. v. of bulala, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. plur. af, 
ngokutyolwa; through being falsely accused: Inf. of tyolwa, pass. v. 

of tyola, instr. f. 
ngabantu ; caus. f. of abantu, after pass. v. 
abakohlakeleyo ; ivho are wicked : (sec. 570) perf. Ind. of the reg. 

v. kohlakala, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. plur. af with its nom. the rel. 

pro. prefixed,, in concord with the correlative abantu. 
kwokuba ; that: the conj. ukuba in poss. f. after emveni. Sec. 492. 
bebese bediniwe ; they had already been ivearied : perf. part, of 

dinwa, pass. v. of dina, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. plur. af. preceded by 

the pluperf. Ind. of the idiomatic verb sala, cont. f. 3rd. pers. 

1st. spec. plur. af. 
kukulityaziswa ; by being delayed : Inf. of lityaziswa, pass. v. of 

libazisa (sec. 208, 1) caus. f. after pass. v. 
kangakanana ; so greatly : adv. 

kwateta; there spoke: aor. Ind. of reg. v. teta, impers. f. af. 
elo-Bulu ; that Dutchman: then. i-Bulu with its corresponding 

dem. pro. prefixed, 
kbelibakumshele ; {who) had interpreted for them : 1st, aug. f. of 






APPENDIX. 377 

kanana, kwateta elo-Bulu labelibakumshele, lamngxolisa 
u-Ngqika, lati, Yinina ukuba wenje nje ? * * * 



pluperf. Ind. of reg. v. kumshela, Eel. f. of Jcumsha, 3rd. pers. 
2nd. spec. sing. off. cont. f. with verbal medial (ba) inserted, 3rd. 
pers. 1st. spec. plur. representing o-Nyengana. Eel. pro. omit- 
ted after the dem. pro. (sec. 434, 3.) 

lamngxolisa ; and chided him : aor. Ind. of reg. v. ngxolisa, Cans, 
f. of ngxola, 3rd. pers. 2nd. spec. sing. cuff, with verbal medial 
(in) inserted, 3rd. pers. 1st. spec. sing, representing the ace. «- 
Ngqikd, 

Tinina ; It is why : interrog. sec. 333. 

uknba; that: conj. sec. 358, 9. 

wenje ; thou hast done : perf. Ind. of irr. v. enza, 2nd. pers. sing. 
ciff nz being changed into nj before the following particle, for 
the sake of euphony. — nje ; so : adv. 



B. 

NOTE ON § 19. 

Further inquiries respecting the dialects of the Kafir 
family, made during a few weeks' sojourn in - the Natal 
colony, have led the writer to doubt the propriety of the 
division adopted in the above section. A better acquain- 
tance with all of them, would probably show that a two- 
fold division was amply sufficient. The two branches may 
be termed, the Kafir, and the Fingoe. Under the former 
there would be further included, the dialect of the Ama- 
zulu, and perhaps that of the people of Umzelekazi. The 
dialects of the Natal natives would be comprised, partly in 

z z 



378 APPENDIX. 

one branch, and partly in the other. This division would 
of course make the variations of the dialects in each branch 
the greater amongst themselves, but so far as these varia- 
tions are known, none of them appear to be of a sufficiently 
exclusive character, to prevent the arrangement now sug- 
gested. 



C. 

ADDENDA TO § 23. 
(To be read after p. 64) 

I. 

Since the above remarks were printed, the writer has met 
with the "Annual Report of the American Board of Mis- 
sions for 1847," which contains much interesting informa- 
tion respecting the people and languages of the Gaboon and 
neighbouring countries, from the pen of the Rev. Mr. Wil- 
son, one of their Missionaries. The following extracts 
seem fully to establish the opinion, that not only the Pongo, 
or as it is probably more correctly written, the Mpongwe, 
but also all the dialects therein referred to, belong to the 
Alliteral class of South African languages. On this sub- 
ject Mr. Wilson writes in one of his communications to the 
Committee, — 

" We have recently made large collections of vocabularies of words 
of the different dialects on this part of the coast, especially of those 
spoken between the Bight of Biafra and Benguela ; and we find 



APPENDIX. 



379 



that they are all not only related to each other, but by comparing 
them with such vocabularies as we have of the languages of the 
Cape of Good Hope, Mozambique, and other parts of the Eastern 
coast, we learn, that though differing from each other materially 
as dialects, yet that they all undoubtedly belong to one general 
family. The orthography of the Zulu, as furnished in the journals 
of our brethren laboring among that tribe, not only bears a strong 
resemblance to the Mpongwe, but many of their proper names, as 
Dingaan, Umpanda, and others, are common to them and the 
Gaboon people. But the most remarkable coincidence we have met 
with, is the close affinity between the Mpongwe and the Sowhy- 
lee,* the language spoken by the aboriginal inhabitants of the 
island and coast of Zanzibar. "We have recently procured a vocab- 
ulary of this dialect from a native of Zanzibar, brought from the 
Eastern to the Western coast of Africa by an American trading- 
vessel. Erom this man we obtained a vocabulary of more than 
200 words, as well as a few colloquial sentences. Of these a small 
number of words, as might naturally be expected, were evidently 
of Arabic origin ; but of the remainder nearly one fourth were 
evidently the same, or differed very slightly. During the time 
these words were taken down, several Mpongwe men happened to 
be present, and the utmost astonishment was manifested by both 
parties on discovering the close affinity of their languages. Had 
this Sowhylee man remained in the Gaboon two or three weeks, he 
would have spoken the Mpongwe with perfect ease." 

In reporting upon several tours which Mr. Wilson made 
during the latter part of 1846, the Committee state : — 

" One of these excursions took him to the principal settle- 
ments of the Bakali country, which lies in a north-easterly 
direction from the Gaboon, and not more than 25 or 30 
miles from Baraka. His account of the visit will be given 
in his own language: — 

' Eormerly the Mpongwe people were surrounded on all sides 
by the Shekani tribe. These, by means of petty wars, mtempe- 
rance, and the slave trade, very nearly exhausted themselves : 
and about 15 or 20 years ago they were displaced by the Bakali 



* This word, like most other South 
African tribal epithets, is variously 
written by different authors. Dr. 



Krapf who lives amongst them wi-ites 
it Sooahelee. In Kafir orthography it 
would probably be bowahUL 



380 APPENDIX. 

people. The lattsr have taken possession of all the tributary 
streams of the Gaboon, both north and south ; but their largest 
and principal settlements are in the region of country which I vis- 
ited. — The Bakali dialect differs somewhat from the Mpongwe ; 
but it might be acquired with comparative ease, since the principles 
cf the latter have been understood and reduced to writing.' 

" Another excursion was made to Cape Saint Catherine, 
on the sea coast, about 150 miles south of the Gaboon river. 
Here the Kama people, as they are called, have their abode. 
They speak the Mpongwe language. Mr. Wilson's descrip- 
t on of them is as follows: — 

1 The Kama people, like the Eakali, have recently emerged from 
the interior, and have established themselves on the sea coast for 
the advantage and convenience of trade. — Besides these, the tribes 
immediately in the interior, and to the distance of one or two hun- 
dred miles, are represented as being very numerous ; and they all 
speak the Mpongwe language.' 

" Cape Lopez, which lies midway between Cape St. Ca- 
therine and the Gaboon, has a large population, all speaking 
the Mpongwe language. 

Mr. Wilson made still another tour to the Batanga country, 
about 150 miles north of the Gaboon, and nearly half-way 
to the Cameroon mountains. Here he found a larger and 
more promising people than those which he had formerly vis- 
ited. Mr. Wilson describes them as follows: — 

* The Batanga people, like the other two, have been but little 
known to white men, until within the last 15 or 20 years. — Their 
physical features differ somewhat from the tribes along the coast, 
and approximate, I should think, to the descriptions given of the 
Caffre (Kafir) and other tribes of South Africa, their complexion 
being a dark brown, and not the deep black of most of the coast 
natives. I regretted very much that I could not speak their lan- 
guage, so as to find out something about the origin of the tribe, 
and the region of country from which their ancestors had emigrated. 
This language belongs to the one great family which undoubtedly 
prevails over the whole of the Southern division of the African 
continent ; but as a dialect it differs essentially from the Mpo- 
ngwe. — The Batanga people are numerous, and live in small 



APPENDIX. 381 

villages at the distance of not more than two or three hundred 
yards from each other.' 

" Directly in the rear of the Batanga people, at the dis- 
tance of only a few miles, Mr. Wilson was told that there 
was another tribe, called the Sheba people. These accor- 
ding to the representations made to him, are vastly more 
numerous than the Batangas. Still farther from the coast, 
at a distance of about 100 miles, are the northern limits of 
the Pangwe country, which stretches southward to the lati- 
tude of Cape St. Catherine/' 

The results of Mr. Wilson's literary labours, are thus 
given : — 

" No printing has been done by the mission since Septem- 
ber 1846, owing to the absence of the printer. Before that 
time there had issued from the press, in addition to various 
elementary works, a small volume of Hymns and Questions, 
containing 48 pages : a volume of extracts from the New 
Testament, of 84 pages : and, in part, a volume of Old. 
Testament history. ' All these ', says Mr. Wilson, ' are in 
the Mpongwe language, and printed in tolerably good style 
by a native boy of our own training, who is not more than 
16 years of age.' Mr. Wilson has prepared a grammar and 
an extended vocabulary of the Mpongwe language, as well 
as a smaller vocabulary, with a few familiar sentences, in the 
Batanga language." 

II. 

To the above information on the tribes of the Western 
coast, may be added some which has been more recently 
received respecting the tribes of the Interior. This infor- 
mation is contained in an extract of a letter from the Rev. 
Mr. Livingstone, of the London Missionary society, to the 
Rev. R. Moffat, published in " The South African Com- 
mercial Advertiser" of November 3rd. 1849. The letter 
is dated from the neighbourhood of the Great Inland Lake, 
which has been so long supposed to exist, and of which Mr. 



382 APPENDIX. 

Livingstone and his companions in travel have now the hon- 
our of being the discoverers. The extract is as follows : — 

" We reached this a day or two ago, after a journey of about 556 
miles from Kolobeng, and feel thankful that our path has been one 
of safety and pleasure. We are now at the Batauana town, and 
yesterday rode down about 6 miles to look on the broad blue waters 
of the Lake. We cannot tell how broad it may be, for we could 
not see a horizon, except one of water, on the south and west. We 
traversed through much desert country, and were looking for the 
Lake for 200 miles before we came to it. We traversed about 200 
miles along the banks of a large river which runs S. S. E., a beauti- 
ful stream, in some parts very like the Clyde, but frequently broader. 
The water was rising, and seems to come from the north, from 
melted snows — it is so clear and soft. Two large rivers run into 
the Lake, both from the north. The Batauana are a numerous 
tribe — the Chief a youth. Many Makoba or Bayeiye fish and float 
on the river ; darker in complexion than Bechuanas, and speak a 
language which has a slight click. Canoes hollowed out of one tree, 
very fine scenery on the banks of the river, splendid trees, mostly 
new to me, one the fruit bke a small yellow pumpkin, about 3 inches 
in diameter. Mr. Oswell and I go on horseback to-morrow. The 
wagons go on with Mr. Murray. We follow on the track when 
we have seen Sebetoane's tribe. The Bayeiye are very numerous, but 
villages all small. Last observation of sun gave about 19° 7'. 
We are "N. N. W. of Kolobeng, but we expect when at Sebetoane's 
to be considerably farther north." 

Mr. Moffat observes that Mr. L. calls the lake Noko ea 
Nama or Ngama, which is a different appellation to that 
which it has usually gone by, namely, Maravi. Mr. M. 
also adds, " that the Batauana tribe are Bechuanas, and 
originally of the Bamanguato tribe, which lie 8 days' journey 
north of the Bakuena, among whom Mr. Livingstone has his 
station (Kolobeng). The tribe of Sebetoane, (the chief's 
name) are also Bechuanas; the Makoba (which means slaves) 
are a different race. They possess no cattle, but live on fish. 
Bayeiye seems to mean eaters. " 

Of the three tribes mentioned in the above extract, two 
are assigned to the Bechuana race, namely, the Batauana 



APPENDIX. 383 

and the people of the chief Sebetoane. The other tribe, 
termed Bayeiye, from their darker complexion, and from 
their speaking a language in which clicks are occasionally 
heard, as well as from their living in small detached villages, 
would appear to belong to the Kafir race. Their other 
name of Makoba, (in Kafir, Amakoboka) seems to indicate 
a state of vassalage, something similar probably to that in 
which the Fingoes were formerly held by the Kafirs. It 
may be presumed, therefore, that the Bayeiye have been 
compelled, at some former period, to take refuge in their 
present situation near the Great Lake, by the marauding 
excursions of other tribes in their original country, which 
may be supposed to lie towards the Eastern coast, where 
it is well known that Kafir tribes prevail. For the present, 
however, this is bare hypothesis. Fuller particulars of what 
Messrs. Livingstone and fellow-travellers saw and heard in 
the course of their whole journey, will doubtless throw light 
upon this and other matters connected with African eth- 
nology, as well as upon many important points of African 
geography. In reference to both these subjects, indeed, 
the importance of their discovery can scarcely be overrated. 
A fit and favourable position for observation and research, 
almost in the very centre of South Africa, is now made 
known, whence, in all probability, the best and safest open- 
ing into the far interior of the great African Continent is 
attainable. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



| Figures refer to pages. In many instances, the clause — 
( and following pages — must be understood after the figure. 



Accentuation, 94 

Accusative, 282, 280 

Adjectival usages of nouns, 830 
— of the Infinitive mood, 342 
— of verbs, 361 — of adverbs, 
864 

Adjectives, 126, 294, 309, 332 

Adverbial usages of nouns, 331 
■ — of adjectives, 332 — of the 
relative pronoun, 338 — of the 
Infinitive mood, 3-12 — of verbs, 
362 

Adverbs, 261, 300, 324, 364 

Affixes, 254 

Akwaha, 275 

Alekela, 354 

Alliteral class of South African 
dialects, 26 

Alliteral particles, Tabular view 
of, 250 

Alliteration. Specimen of, G6 

Alphabet, 74 

Amafenyu, Derivationand mean- 
ing of, 41, note 31 

— ana, 254 

Andula or andu, 350 

— any ana, 254 

Apo, 325 

Apposition, 286 

Asi, 243, 276 

Auxiliary verbs, 188 

• — azana, 254 

Ba, The auxiliary verb, 189 
Basuto hunting song, 85 
Beehuaua, Explanation of the 
term. 31. note 20 



Bo, 256 

Bushman dialects, 
Buy a, 354 



15 



Changes between the Kafir and 
Sechuana languages, 51 

Classification of the several part? 
of speech, — of nouns, 98 
— of adjectives, 126 — ofpro* 
nouns, 138, 142, 146, 148 
— of verbs, 151 — of parti- 
cles, 243 

Click class of South African 
dialects, 9 

Clicks, 82 

Coalition of vowels, — relative 
pronoun, 76 — verbal prefixes 
a and e, 77 — final a of pre- 
fixual particles, 77 

Combination of vowels, 76 — of 
consonants, 79 — of clicks and 
consonants, 83 — of guttural 
and consonants, 84 

Comparison in connexion with 
adjectives, 131, 810 — with 
adverbs, 325 — with verbs, 363 

Compatible letters, 84 

Compound nouns, 104, see also 
93 

Concordance of the principal 
parts of the proposition, 287 

Concordance of the subordinate 
parts of the proposition, — of 
nouns, 293 — of adjectives, 
294, — of pronouns, 296 — 
of participles, 300 —of certain 
particles.. 300 



AAA 



386 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Congo dialects, 26 

Conjugation, how effected, 184 

Conjunctions, 268, 327 

Consonants, Classification of, 
78 

Construction, General princi- 
ples of, 285 

Contractedformsof the auxiliary 
verbs, 192 

Contraction of syllables, 92 — 
of vowels, 77 

Copia verborum of the Kafir 
language, 69 

Copulative propositions, 277 

Counting, Mode of, 132 

Da, 351 

Damara, Derivation and mean- 
ing of the term, 29, note 19 

Damara dialects, 29 

Demonstrative adverbs, 265, 
325 

Demonstrative personal pro- 
nouns, 147, 336 

Demonstrative pronouns, 137, 
296, 298, 310, 333 

Derivation of euphonic letters, 
87 — of nouns, 99 — of adjec- 
tives, 130 — of pronouns, 138, 
142, 147, 149 —of particles, 
(refer to the different lends) 

Dlilula, 363 

Diminutive adjectives, 130 

Diminutive nouns, 106 

Division of words into parts of 
speech, 98 

Division of words with regard 
to the right method of spel- 
ling, 90 

—edwa, 263, 300 

Fkubeni, 269, 328 

Fhuhleni, 355 

JEkunene, ekutile, 333 

Ekutini, 349 

Elision of syllables, 93 — of the 

prefixes of adjectives, 135 — 

of vowels, 77 
Fmva, emvenij 267 



Fnkla, 267 

Enunciation, Character of the, 

71 
Epenthetic letters, 85 
Euphonic concord, 65, 285 
Euphonic letters, 86, 112 
Expletive particles, 255 

Fecane, Meaning of the term, 
42, note 33 

Figurative language, 70 

For, How to express, 322 

Eoreign words, Bules referring 
to, 90 

Eorms of nouns, — principal 
forms, 113 — compound 
forms, 121 — tabular view, 
125 

Eorms of pronouns, — of the de- 
monstrative, 139, and tabular 
view, 141 — of the personal, 
143, and tabular view, 145 
— of the relative, 1 50 

Eorms of nouns and pronouns, 
On the several usages of when 
in dependencv upon the verb, 
314 

Eorms of verbs, — primitive 
form, 152 — simp le derivatives, 
153 — compound derivatives, 
155 — stem forms, 158 

Eorms of verbs, General force 
of as to regimen, 312 

Fuda, fudula, 352 

Fumana, 353 

Gender of nouns, 108, 285 

Gqita, 363 

Grammatical structure of the 

Click languages, 16 
Grammatical variation of forms, 

67 
Gutturals, 83 

Hai, 276 

Have, have for, How to express, 

236, 237 
Hla, 854 
Hlala,hlalela : 355 



GENERAL INDEX. 



387 



JELlazi, hlazibe, hleze, Sfc. 268, 

327 
Hottentot, Probable origin of 

the term, 9, note 5 
Hottentot dialects, 9 
Hottentot grammar, Outline of 

in the Korana dialect, 17 
Hottentot literature, 14 
Hypothetical propositions, 275 

Idiomatic verbs, 242, 350 
ImMaimbi, 265 
Imperative mood, 164 
Impersonal form of the verb, 

184, 344 
Inantsi, 266 

Indefinite adjectives, 128, 310 
Infinitive mood, Formation of, 

164 — Particular usages of, 

341 
Ingabi, 347 

Interjectional propositions, 276 
Interjections, 270, 329 
Interrogative propositions, 273 
Interrogatives, 256 
Into, 323, 332, 334, 336 
Irregular verbs, 233 
Isiqu, 339 
Ize, 327, 360 
Izolo elinye, 332 

Ka, — as prefix, 251 — as verbial, 

244 — as idiomatic verb, 356 
Kafir, Derivation of the term, 2, 

note 2 
Kafir dialects, 36 
Kafir hymn, 47 
Kafir language, Comparison of 

with other languages, 2 
Kafir literature, 45 
Kafir and Sechuana languages, 

Principal differences between, 

49 
Kakulu, 367 
Kaloku, 264 
Kamva, 267 
Kangakananina, 259 
Kanye, 365 
—kazi, 255 



Ke, 256 

Kekaloku, 256 
Ko, 244 
Kodwa, 269 
Koko, 269, 328 
Kokuya, 264 
Kolisa, 357 
Kona, 263, 365 
Kova, 353 
Ku— , 251 
Kude, kwaba, 351 
Kukona, 269, 328 
Kuloko, 269, 328 
Kunene, 365 
Kupela, 362 
Kuqala, 342 
Kusasa, 363 
Kuseloko, Jcusoko, 264 
Kusinina, 258 

Kzva, — as prefix, 252 — as ad- 
verb, 336, 365 
— kiveni, 255 

Ze, 268 

Letters, Classification of, 75 
Lord's prayer in Kafir and Zulu, 
45 — in Sisuto and Sitlapi, 34 

Ma, The auxiliary verb, 191. 

See also 355 
Malungana, 268, 326 
liana, 353 
Mantatees, Derivation and 

meaning of the term, 31, note 

21 
Ilatanci, 332 
Mawo! 270 
llacca, manxa, 332 
— -mbi, 128 
Medials, Verbal, 194 
MUana, 332 
Monosyllabic verbs, 234 
Moods, 163 
Multiplicatives, — adjectives, 

134 — nouns, 135 
Musa, 272 
Mutation of vowels, 78 — of 

consonants, 81 — of clicks, 83 



388 



GENERAL INDEX. 



2?a, — as prefix, 253, 277 — 
as sign of interrogation, 273 

JValmoa, nakubeni, 269, 328 

Nangona, 269, 328 

Jtfapakade, 264, 272 

jSTdawonye, 264, 324 

■ — ndini, 255 

Negative propositions, 271 

JV^a, — ^as prefix, 252 — as aux- 
iliary verb, 190 — as verb, to 
wish, 273, 328 — as verb, to 
seem, 275 

JS T gaba, ngahi, 3-47 

« — ngaka, 129 

• — ngahancmma, 259 

■ — ngako, 130, 

iVy^-o, 269 

JSfgamana, 354 

Ngauqa, 254 

Nganina, 258 

JS/gajrina, — as adjective, 260 — 
as adverb, 261 

Wgati, 349 

Ngennxa, 268, 323, 326 

i\>£o, 269 

JSTgohuba, 270, 328 

jFgolaingati, 349 

Wgomso 'mnye, 332 

iW«tf, 257 

jV r ;«— , 254 

Njanina, 260, 276 

iV}'e, — as adjective, 130 — as ad- 
verb, 263 - — as expletive, 256 

ffljengor, 254 

JS T jen}olco, 264, 269, 328 

JSjenr/oJciingcdi, 349 

JSTofco, 264, 269, 328 

Nominative, The, 281, 287 

Nominative absolute, 301 

North African Dialects, Com- 
parative tables of, 4 — 5 

Nouns, 98, 293, 307, 330 

Nouns of comparison, 107 

Number, 109, 184, 286 

Numerals, — adjectives, 131 



noun 



132 —adveros, 266 



Woca, 332, 368 
jfyaham, 332 
Z\yahennge 1 264 



— nye, — as indefinite adjective, 
128, 296, — as numeral ad- 
jective, 132 

—odiva, 263, 300 

Oho, 264 

07,'ohcha, 269, 327 

O/iu, okuya, 264 

Omission of consonants, 81 

Omission of the relative pro- 
noun, 298 

Omission of the verbal root 
of the substantive verb, 235 

—onlce, 129, 296 

Optative propositions, 273 

Orthographical construction of 
Kafir 'words, 67 

Orthography, Observations re- 
ferring to, 67, note 50; 76, 
note 53 ; 80, note 55 ; 85, 
note 56 ; 90, note 57 ; 91 ; 
92; 97, note 58; 127, note 
60 ; 142 ; 169, note 62 ; 172, 
note 63 ; 173, note 64 ; 193, 
JST.B. ; 235; 356; 358. 

Pa— , 254 

Pantsi, before the Infinitive 

mood, 366 
Paradigm of a regular verb, 197 
Participles, 164, 300, 343 
Particles, Classification of, 243 
Parts of the proposition, 281 
Passive voice, Formation of, 161 
Passive stem forms, 163 
Tela, 362 

Person of verbs, 184 
Personal pronouns, 142, 311, 

334 
Personification, 71 
Tina, — as adverb, 259 — as in- 
terrogative pronoun, («;wpina, 
&c.) 260 
Pinda, 357 

Position of adjectives, 295 
Position of pronouns, 298 
Position of the principal parts of 
the proposition, 291 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Possessive particles, 249 
Possessive pronouns, 146, 296, 

298, 338, 339 
Precision of the Kafir language 
as regards the form of expres- 
sion, 68 
Predicate of the proposition, 282 
Prefixes of nouns, 98 — of ad- 
jectives, 128 — of verbs, 187 
— of other kinds, 249 
Prepositions, 267, 301, 326 
Principal parts of the proposi- 
tion, 287 
Principal parts of the verb, 166 
Pronouns, 137, 260, 296, 298, 

310, 333 
Proper names, 104 
Propositions in general, 271 
Punctuation, 97 

Quantity, 96 

— ra, — with nouns, 107 — with 
adjectives, 131 

[Radical letters, 84 

Reduplicated roots, — nominal, 
103 —verbal, 158, 163, 238 

Eegimen of words, — of nouns, 
307 — of adjectives, 309 — of 
pronouns, 310 — of verbs, 311 
— of adverbs, 324 — of prepo- 
sitions, 326 — of conjunctions, 
327 ■ — of interjections, 329 

Regular verbs, 196 

Relative pronouns, 148, 296, 
298, 302, 310, 337 

8a, 245 

— se, — sel,^ 358 

Sechuana, Explanation of the 
term, 31, note 20 

Sechuana dialects, 31 

Sechuana literature, 35 

— she, 255 

Sinina, 258 

South African dialects, Classi- 
fication of, 8 

■ — sozi, 246 

Stem forms of verbs, — primitive, 



158 — derivative, 161 — pas- 
sive, 163 

Suba, see sulcuba 

Subject of the proposition, 281 

Substantive verb (ba), 235, 274, 
275, 276, 345 

Substitutes for some of the eu- 
phonic letters, 88 

Suka, 358 

SuJcuba, 247 

Syllables, Construction of, 89 

Tanci, 332 

Temporary predicate, 282 

Tenses, Formation and signifi- 
cation of, 167 — Augmented 
forms of, 180 — Compound 
forms of, 182 — On the use 
of, 344 

Ti, The verb, 237, 275, 282, 
347 

—tile, 129 

—tye, 255 

TTbanina, 259 

ITJcuba, 269, 327 

Uhtze, 270, 327, 328 

UmUaumbi, 265, 366 

Unanisi, 266 

Unclassified dialects of the Al- 

literal class of South African 

languages, 56 
JJ-Tixo, Probable derivation of, 

13, note 10 

Tela, 317 

Verbal medials, see Medials 
Verbal prefixes, see Prefixes 
Verbal specimens of the Hotten- 
tot dialects, 13 — of the Con- 
go dialects, 27 — of the Da- 
mar a dialects, 30 — of the 
Sechuana dialects, 33 — of 
the Kafir, 44 —of the East- 
ern coast dialects, 57 — of the 
Interior dialects, 61 — of the 
Western coast dialects, 63 
Verbial particles, 243 
Verbs, 151, 277, 287, 311, 341 



388. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Versification, 96 
Voices of verbs, 161 
Vowels, 75 
Vowel verbs, 239 

Wa, — as interjection, 270 — as 

idiomatic verb, 358 
Watsha! Sfc. 169 
Wetul 339 

Xa, 332, 366 
XesheJcweni, 255, 366 



Ya, — as auxiliary verb, 189 
— as used before the dative 
form, 316 — as idiomatic 
verb, 359 

— ya, 255 

Yinina. 259 



— yo, 



150, 175 



Za, — as used before the dative 
form, 316 — as idiomatic 
verb, 359 



THE END. 






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